tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-62291044667761598112024-02-19T02:23:25.458-08:00Training the Musical BrainA Neuroscience Perspective on Teaching and Learning MusicTarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.comBlogger52125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-78081042076634037192017-12-01T09:36:00.000-08:002017-12-01T09:36:16.182-08:00Music Practice Changes Your Brain<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1cNIStnLPe4x3-qvhaR0kmU0SOXa7yTiG6xwT8t6jN66uORdXKguL51TCWa8tIU5VZgvy9yaJMfz46RcIOWgHylAB1A7fsGuCW_AEGDCjsELYJMkQVuiqtAXR5rGTzZU_l-RKN_2kXuZj/s1600/Rowan+as+twin.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="516" data-original-width="701" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1cNIStnLPe4x3-qvhaR0kmU0SOXa7yTiG6xwT8t6jN66uORdXKguL51TCWa8tIU5VZgvy9yaJMfz46RcIOWgHylAB1A7fsGuCW_AEGDCjsELYJMkQVuiqtAXR5rGTzZU_l-RKN_2kXuZj/s320/Rowan+as+twin.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">How does a life with or without music practice change your brain? Photo by T. Gaertner</td></tr>
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When I have kids who are struggling with their piano pieces,
I try to encourage them by acknowledging that playing the piano is <i>hard</i>. In fact, by learning how to play
music, they are actually <i>changing the
structure of their brain</i>.</div>
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But how much am I exaggerating here? How much does musical
training really change your brain?</div>
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There’s some pretty good evidence to support the fact that
musical training causes people to have larger auditory cortex, a larger hand
area in the motor part of their cortex, and better connections between these
two areas and between the two sides of the brain. This research has generally
been done two different ways: a) by comparing the brains of musicians to those
of non-musicians and b) by<a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2012/02/music-training-and-iq.html" target="_blank"> giving music lessons to children and seeing how their brain structure changes</a>.</div>
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Both of these types of research have the same problem: we
can’t tell what differences are caused by practice and what are caused by
genetics. Perhaps people who have brains that grow larger auditory cortex (for
example) are the ones who have a natural talent for music, and so they continue with lessons and
become musicians. In other words, maybe it was the brain structure that caused
the person to be a musician, not the other way around. Maybe the kids who stick
with music lessons are the ones whose brains are genetically predisposed to
being “musical”.</div>
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What would be really useful is some magical way of taking a
single person and seeing what their brain would look like with and without a
lifetime of musical practice. </div>
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<a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cercor/bhx299/4608057" target="_blank">A recently-published study</a> has managed to do the next best
thing. The researchers, Örjan de Manzano and Fredrik Ullén, at the Karolinska
Institute in Sweden, studied 9 identical twin pairs in which one twin studied
piano and the other did not. In each pair, both twins started music study at
the same time but one dropped out of lessons quite early while the other
continued with piano lessons. On average, the piano-studying twin had played
the piano for over 4000 hours more than the twin who quit piano, and the playing twin
was still an active amateur pianist.</div>
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The researchers looked to see what differences in
brain structure were found between the practicing and non-practicing twins,
assuming that if the piano-playing twin hadn’t practiced, their brain would look
like their twin’s (which is a reasonable assumption, based on other twin
studies). Basically, the non-practicing twin acted as a control for the
practicing twin.</div>
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What they found confirmed some of what had been found in
previous studies: musical training leads to a thicker cerebral cortex in
auditory and motor areas on the left side of the brain and a greater volume of
grey matter in parts of the cerebellum, which plays a role in motor control. Musical
training also increases the organization of white matter in the auditory and
motor parts of the cortex on both sides of the brain and in the corpus callosum,
which connects the two hemispheres.</div>
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These changes in brain structure are found in the parts of
the brain most used in piano practice. When we practice, we’re connecting
auditory information with motor control, linking up the movements that we need
to make in order to produce audible musical sounds. In the brains of musicians, the auditory cortex,
the motor cortex, and the fibre bundles that connect these regions are bigger and
better organized. Also, the corpus callosum, which plays a role in bimanual
co-ordination, has more organized structure. These differences in brain
structure between piano-playing and non-playing twins are clearly not due to
genetic differences, so they must be due to differences in life experience. In
other words, hours and hours of music practice have altered the structure of
the playing twins’ brains.</div>
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This result does not mean that genetics has no role in
musical ability.<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797614541990" target="_blank"> Other research from the same lab at the Karolinska Institute has suggested that amount of practice is less important to musical expertise than genetic factors</a>. Our genetics not only influence the fluidity of
our motor control and our ability to discriminate pitches and keep a beat, but
also shape how much we’re willing to practice, our ability to focus, and our
emotional and motivational responses to music. But, as this twin study clearly
reveals, our day-to-day experiences with music also play an important role. The
question is not <a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2013/11/nature-and-nurture.html" target="_blank">whether musical ability is shaped by nature or nurture</a>; as
with almost everything, both play a role. The interesting question is how
nature and nurture interact to mold our abilities.</div>
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So yes, music practice really is changing your brain. Of
course, music study is not necessarily unique in this regard. Anything you
spend a lot of time doing is going to change your brain. For example, expert
basketball players surely have different brains too. But not all skills lead to
long-term, large changes in brain structure. In fact, there is a <a href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364661317301961" target="_blank">theory that learning a new skill causes brain growth at first, but then as the skill is solidified, brain structure is renormalized and returns to its original size</a>. The fact that this doesn’t seem to happen with musical training
suggests that playing an instrument depends on a difficult set of skills requiring
specialization of a number of parts of the brain. Mastering these skills does
not come without effort.</div>
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As for my struggling students: Knowing that this is true
doesn’t make it less work, but perhaps it can be reassuring, and motivate them
to keep growing the auditory-motor parts of their brains, synapse by synapse.</div>
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References:</div>
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<a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cercor/bhx299/4608057" target="_blank">de Manzano, Ö., and Ullén, F. (2017). Same Genes, Different Brains: Neuroanatomical Differences Between Monozygotic Twins Discordant for MusicalTraining. Cerebral Cortex 1–8.</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p> </div>
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<a href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364661317301961" target="_blank">Wenger, E., Brozzoli, C., Lindenberger, U., and Lövdén, M. (2017).Expansion and Renormalization of Human Brain Structure During Skill Acquisition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 21, 930–939.</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797614541990" target="_blank">Mosing, M.A., Madison, G., Pedersen, N.L., Kuja-Halkola, R., and Ullen,F. (2014). Practice Does Not Make Perfect: No Causal Effect of Music Practice on Music Ability. Psychological Science 25, 1795–1803.</a><o:p></o:p></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-55265327994541836292017-11-07T16:59:00.000-08:002017-11-07T16:59:23.597-08:00Crossing the Midline<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
More and more these days, people are interested in the neuroscience underlying our behaviours and our ability to learn. This is fantastic, but the downside to this enthusiasm for neuroscience is that there is a lot of pseudo-neuroscience making the rounds. A few weeks back, when someone on a piano pedagogy Facebook group mentioned exercises for “crossing the midline”, a warning sign immediately flashed in my mind, and I decided to investigate a little.<br />
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There is a fairly common neuro idea that exercises that involve body parts crossing the midline (for example, touching your right elbow to your left knee) are good for encouraging neuroplasticity, especially interhemispheric communication (the two sides of the brain talking to each other) and bilateral sensory integration (putting together sensory information from the two sides of the body). Midline-crossing exercises are touted to improve how the two sides of the brain talk to each other and have all sorts of other benefits. See, for example, this article entitled <a href="http://ilslearningcorner.com/2015-11-why-crossing-the-midline-activities-helped-this-child-listen-to-his-teacher/" target="_blank">“Why crossing the midline activities helped this child listen to his teacher”.</a><br />
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My gut feeling was that these claims are questionable, and I wanted to know whether there is any research to support them.<br />
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A quick search of the scientific literature found exactly zero studies investigating this effect. There is no evidence to directly support the idea that crossing-the-midline exercises improve interhemispheric communication. A Google search of the same topic turned up a 2013 <a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/ask-neuroscientist-how-train-your-brain" target="_blank">“Ask a neuroscientist” blog post</a>, which confirmed that there is no research to directly support the effectiveness of crossing-the-midline exercises. In fact, that blog post suggested that the best way to increase connections between the two hemispheres of the brain was to learn a musical instrument.<br />
<br />
It’s tempting to just conclude that this idea is pseudoscience and leave it at that. But given the prevalence of this idea, I’d like to dig just a little deeper and talk about where this idea comes from. There is actually some logic to it.
To start with, let me explain how these types of exercises work both sides of the brain. Imagine you’re using your right hand to reach over and touch a target in front of the left side of your body. The right hand is controlled by the left motor cortex. Your awareness of space on the left side of your body happens in the right side of your brain, in the posterior parietal lobe.<br />
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<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If we move our right hand into the left side of our personal
space, then in order to coordinate where our hand is in space, the left motor
cortex must communicate with the right parietal lobe, using fibres that travel
through the corpus callosum, the big fibre bundle connecting the two sides of
the brain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Presumably, if both sides of the brain are active and
talking to each other, this increases the strength of their connection, but I should reiterate that it’s not clear
that simply performing exercises that cross the midline will lead to increased
connectivity.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When I delved into the literature about crossing the
midline, I found that researchers study the development of midline reaching as
part of the development of handedness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If
you put an object in front of a baby, but put it a little to one side of the
midline, she will almost always reach with the closest arm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As children age, they become more likely to
reach with the dominant arm, which means that if the object is placed on the
non-dominant side, they must reach across the midline to pick it up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The development of this behaviour seems to
parallel the development of the corpus callosum, the big bundle of nerve fibers
which communicates between the two hemispheres.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This doesn’t necessarily mean that the cross-midline reaching <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">causes </i>interhemispheric communication;
it’s more likely that the increase in communication between the sides allows
the hemispheres to specialize and this leads to hand dominance.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Children with developmental delays often don’t automatically
reach across the midline.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are more
likely to reach with whichever hand is closest to the object. This is
correlated with delayed dominance and decreased laterality of the brain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So occupational therapists do test for a
child’s tendency to cross the midline, and if the child doesn’t reach across
the midline in a normal fashion, the therapist will recommend midline-crossing
activities to try to help develop a more dominant hand. This doesn’t seem to be
an evidence-based therapy, seeing as there aren’t any studies to support
it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, therapists may see
improvement based on these exercises in individual cases and this justifies
their use.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Even if midline-crossing exercises do help develop hand
dominance and bimanual interaction in children with developmental delays, that
doesn’t mean there is any benefit to these exercises in normally developing
children.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In children who have developed
strong hand dominance, midline-crossing exercises probably aren’t doing much,
in my opinion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In short, there is no evidence that these exercises are useful
for people with normal development, and even for people who are not
neurotypical, the main relevance seems to be in the development of handedness,
not some miraculous creation of connections in the brain.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Provine, R.R., and Westerman, J.A. (1979). Crossing
the midline: limits of early eye-hand behavior. Child Dev <i>50</i>, 437–441.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Schofield, W.N. (1976). Do children find movements
which cross the body midline difficult? Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology <i>28</i>, 571–582.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Schofield, W.N. (1976). Hand Movements Which Cross
the Body Midline: Findings Relating Age Differences to Handedness. Perceptual
and Motor Skills <i>42</i>, 643–646.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Surburg, P.R., and Eason, B. (1999).
Midline-crossing inhibition: an indicator of developmental delay. Laterality <i>4</i>,
333–343.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Surburg, P.R., Johnston, J., and Eason, B.L.
(1994). Effects of midline crossing on response processing of adults with
mental retardation. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities <i>6</i>,
327–338.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4AaRV138DyM9pOXseQq9NdVubO0Rm1LLgGyXCB3Rw2avJRdW_sZwRTB6uWuO69WAD9tur6joi4SgT-kSg6xHmNm9i_EqX6Mty_Js6pb0jfmM_QkoZ-AQdYOD2p2kiV1ZI_x_n1E7JpYVv/s1600/DSCN5401.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="547" data-original-width="800" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4AaRV138DyM9pOXseQq9NdVubO0Rm1LLgGyXCB3Rw2avJRdW_sZwRTB6uWuO69WAD9tur6joi4SgT-kSg6xHmNm9i_EqX6Mty_Js6pb0jfmM_QkoZ-AQdYOD2p2kiV1ZI_x_n1E7JpYVv/s320/DSCN5401.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-23424577348149577562017-07-03T18:25:00.000-07:002017-12-21T09:46:12.443-08:00Aging and Motor Memory<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxC9A5JEWXtoIuLiHw2ntgUZsWLP6NNjhdVVqFSqYBvDq2f3emtsuN92m_4e30SLGcJawhXq6YwrUg6GlopnsYLVQHHW2eqLhok8gY1xs-9yQN6H-TtO0HeAd_cvOENkbdko7A2Hncb5tp/s1600/pexels-photo-110165_oldhandspiano.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxC9A5JEWXtoIuLiHw2ntgUZsWLP6NNjhdVVqFSqYBvDq2f3emtsuN92m_4e30SLGcJawhXq6YwrUg6GlopnsYLVQHHW2eqLhok8gY1xs-9yQN6H-TtO0HeAd_cvOENkbdko7A2Hncb5tp/s320/pexels-photo-110165_oldhandspiano.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">In my spare time, I am slowly learning Bach’s <i>English Suite
in A minor</i>, movement by movement. I take
a break from writing or studying and I sit down at the piano, pick a small
section, and work through it, trying to get it under my fingers. I always make progress throughout a practice
session, and leave the piano feeling like I’ve accomplished some learning. But the next day, when I come back to the
piano, and try the same section, I’m usually disappointed. The improvements from the previous day don’t
seem to last in the same way they did when I was a younger musician.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Unfortunately, this is a natural effect of aging. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Memory and learning differ between young adults and older
adults in a number of ways. Older adults tend to have more difficulty with
declarative memory – conscious memory for facts and events – than younger
adults. This is often attributed to
age-related loss of neurons in the hippocampus, a structure in the brain that
is the site of declarative memory formation. So if I tell you that Ulaan Baatar is the capital of Mongolia, you would store
that in your declarative memory. If
you’re twenty, you are more likely to remember this fact tomorrow than if you are
seventy. From a psychological point of view, deficits in declarative memory
seem to be related to decreased attentional resources in older people. In other
words, older people can’t pay attention to as many different things at once as
a younger person can, so they can’t spend as much time committing any one fact
to memory. That means the capital of Mongolia won’t be stored in their memory as stably as it would in a young
person.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Motor learning uses a different type of memory known as
procedural memory, and has its own difficulties for older adults. Older people are able to improve at a new
skill over a practice session, but they show a different pattern from young
people when it comes to retaining that skill. When young research volunteers learn a new motor skill, such as a
finger-tapping pattern, they improve significantly over a practice period, with
a decrease in the number of errors and a gradual increase in speed. When the volunteers come back the next day
for a second session, their performance often has improved overnight, without
any further practice. This is due to <a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2011/10/sleep-and-memory-consolidation.html" target="_blank"><i>sleep-dependent consolidation</i></a>, in which our motor skills both improve and become resistant to interference
from other memories, while we’re sleeping. People can literally improve their motor skills, such as playing a musical
instrument, just by sleeping.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">As we age, things start to change. Older adults just don’t show the same
between-sessions improvement in motor skills, and in fact their performance on
the second day of training on a task starts out much lower than where they left
off the day before, just like when I practice Bach. When researchers compared
the brainwaves of sleeping young adults with sleeping older adults, it became
clear that older adults spend less time in slow-wave sleep and show a decrease
in sleep spindles, a particular type of brainwave that is believed to be
important in motor memory consolidation. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Research from the University of Montreal suggests that the hippocampus, even though its main role is in declarative memory, is important
for sleep-dependent consolidation of motor memory. This implies that decreased hippocampal
function in aging leads to problems with motor memory consolidation. The key point here is that there are important
interactions between the declarative and procedural memory systems. Which means that the
declines in declarative memory which happen naturally with age also affect
procedural memory.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Understanding this gives us a hint at a solution to the
problem of motor learning in older adults. One of the ways in which we learn motor skills is by using declarative
memory to help us along the way. For
example, when we’re learning a new piece of music, we consciously read the
music and try to be aware of things we need to remember: cross finger 4 over here; F# in left hand
here, and so on. Using declarative memory to bolster motor learning is a poor strategy when declarative
memory isn’t working so well. In order
to counteract the effects of poor declarative memory on motor learning, we
should choose practicing strategies that rely more on implicit, procedural
memory, strategies based on repetition of the movements we want to
learn rather than our cognitive appraisal of the notes and movements required
to make them.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">The obvious candidate for this type of learning is a
technique called <i>errorless learning</i>. This technique suggests that if you can
simplify a task somehow so that it can be practiced without making errors (or
at least as few as possible), then you engage procedural memory systems,
leading to more automatic performance. For example, a 2012 study by Chauvel and colleagues tested older and
younger adults in two techniques to learn golf putting skills. One group used “infrequent error” learning,
where the people practiced putting into a hole from a short distance away. The other group practiced putting from a
larger distance, while led to more frequent errors because the task was
harder. This second group had to develop
declarative strategies about how to improve. Then both groups were tested on putting from an intermediate distance,
with and without distractions. The
researchers wanted to see if the older adults fared better with one type of
learning than the other. And the results
were clear: when using the “infrequent
error” approach, older and younger adults performed equally well on the
test. Using the “frequent error”
approach older adults performed worse than younger adults.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">In music practice, errorless practice can be achieved by
practicing at a slow enough tempo to avoid mistakes in pitch and rhythm. I’ve adopted this approach recently, playing
everything extremely slowly and accurately and I found that it improved my
retention of the pieces both within and between practice sessions. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Of course, the idea of practicing slowly is not new or
mind-shattering. I often tell my
students that if they’re practicing their pieces so quickly that they’re making
mistakes, then they’re actually practicing their mistakes. But since reading about errorless learning,
I’ve been encouraging them more and more to practice error-prone sections using
“slow-motion” practice, and this has been very helpful for them. It’s revealing to see the reasoning behind
why this works: because errorless practicing
is training our procedural, automatic memory.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">While my sense of
pride wants me to point out that I don't actually fall into the
category of "older adult", I'm not as young as I used to be, and clearly
that makes a difference in how my memory processes function. As in the story of the tortoise and the hare,
slow and steady wins the race, especially if you're no spring chicken. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>References</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Albouy, G., King, B.R., Maquet, P., and Doyon, J.
(2013). Hippocampus and striatum: Dynamics and interaction during acquisition
and sleep-related motor sequence memory consolidation. Hippocampus.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span lang="FR-BE" style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Chauvel,
G., Maquestiaux, F., Didierjean, A., Joubert, S., Dieudonné, B., and Verny, M.
(2011). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Use of
nondeclarative and automatic memory processes in motor learning: how to
mitigate the effects of aging. </span><span lang="FR-BE" style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Gériatrie et Psychologie
Neuropsychiatrie du Viellissement 455–463.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></span>
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-3674849023403945242017-03-05T14:03:00.001-08:002017-03-05T14:04:17.420-08:00Teaching composing to children: Q&A with Frances Balodis<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzpwhyJN159BJbRh5-FVzjYzXHyLnFkeTGHs9RuQf80yBphuLDR_6U7cJW_rtnOHtGfQLi18iCwDA4ANt2LXPYIObveVeSn28QVUj0w9hJcM2HIQ5uxF1QZvBaKqeQ91aD3Sr3LS88lJZ7/s1600/students+compositions.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzpwhyJN159BJbRh5-FVzjYzXHyLnFkeTGHs9RuQf80yBphuLDR_6U7cJW_rtnOHtGfQLi18iCwDA4ANt2LXPYIObveVeSn28QVUj0w9hJcM2HIQ5uxF1QZvBaKqeQ91aD3Sr3LS88lJZ7/s320/students+compositions.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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My students of all ages, even the three-year-olds, have
spent the last few months lovingly creating their own musical compositions. The
impetus for this is provided by the <a href="http://www.myc.com/" target="_blank">Music for Young Children (MYC<span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span>)</a> International
Composition Festival, which is celebrating its 30<sup>th</sup> anniversary this
year. Thousands of MYC students from around the world have sent their
compositions to be played and reviewed by a panel of teachers and composers who
are charged with the difficult task of deciding which compositions will make it
to the final round and be given first, second, or third place ranking, or an
honourable mention.</div>
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I recently spoke over the phone with Frances Balodis, the
founder of MYC<span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span> and
chair of the MYC Composition Festival.</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">TG: Why do you think
it’s important to teach composition to young children?</i></div>
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FB: It helps them understand what they’re playing. It helps
them memorize. When they come to memorize something you can say, “There’s the
motive, and now it’s repeated, but is it repeated exactly the same? Now listen
to the sequence.” So when they go to play by memory, and they falter just a
little bit, you can support them so nicely by referring to the compositional
techniques. </div>
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Also, when they are composing, you can talk about the need
to have dynamics and tempo markings. You can ask them, “Would you like the
whole piece to be <i>allegro</i>, or is there going to be a <i>ritardando</i>?” </div>
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I have noticed that many children really improve in their
playing after studying composition, and they improve in their understanding. After
we’ve done composition, then the children will look at a song that they’re
going to play, and say, “Oh I see the motive.” I think that by teaching
composition, it really opens up their eyes to what they’re playing. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">TG: What do you think
is most challenging about composing for the students?</i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
FB: Keeping the whole map in their head, because sometimes
they will start out with a really good idea and then they kind of go off on
some side trips and they have a little trouble getting back home. It’s
important for them to understand how to take a trip and explore lots of really
interesting things, and come back home. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">TG: What makes a good
composition? </i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
FB: I like to see an interesting motive. And you can have an
interesting motive even if you only know C, D, and E. And coming to a good
conclusion, a conclusion that makes sense. I think variety is also important<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">. Sometimes you get a composition
where the left hand is all broken triads, too repetitive. I was looking at
Facebook this morning and saw a darn good composition that someone had posted. They
had a nice waltz pattern, and then they changed the left hand pattern so they
had a nice little broken chord. That contributes to being a good composition.</span><span style="color: #7030a0;"> </span>A good composition also has nice phrasing, and
sensible cadences.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"> </span></i><br />
<br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">TG: For the composition festival, the
children write out their compositions in their own handwriting. How important
is that?</span></i>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">FB: Honestly,
some of the compositions that my children wrote, I did not have them spend
hours and many tears recopying them. I think that’s a mistake, and it makes me
sad when people send their compositions in and they look spick and span. And I
think, “Hmmm… I hope the child didn’t cry when they had to recopy it.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">What I used
to say to my students is that writing a composition is like writing a letter. When
I send you a letter, in my handwriting, as long as you can read it, the
communication has been successful. It is not successful if I send you a letter
that you can’t understand. You have to be able to look at the letter that I’ve
sent you and understand what I’m trying to tell you, and it’s the same thing
with a composition. When we make our composition and we send it off, we’re
sending a musical letter. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">I always tell
the reviewers of the compositions, if the treble clef is backwards, if the
stems are on the wrong side of the note, it’s okay. Sometimes the winning composition
looks like a chicken walked across the page. </span></div>
<br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">TG: What is the best
way to introduce composing to young children?</i>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
FB: I like the concept of teaching composition through art<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">. I got the idea of doing that and
then people kept saying, “Oh gosh, I wish this was written down.” And then
Frederick Harris published my <a href="https://www.myc.com/product/book-young-composers-1/" target="_blank"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Composers Notebooks</i></a>
for quite a number of years. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
With the youngest children I just use coloured circle stickers. You
can move the circles up the page, you can move the circles down the page, you
can make the circles go backwards, which sometimes is enough — just to
teach the children the compositional techniques of repetition, sequence and
retrograde. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Bach is such a wonderful example of these techniques: there
it is, there’s the motive, there’s the repetition, there’s the sequence. Bach
was the master of sequence. So sometimes when children or parents say, “That’s
too easy<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">,”</b> I say, “Really? Take a
look at the masters here. It’s not too easy.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">This interview has
been edited and condensed.</i></div>
</div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-12181385498800447942017-01-27T09:29:00.001-08:002017-01-27T09:29:37.481-08:00A Tale of Two Sight-Readers<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Aria is 10 years old, and has been studying piano with me
for many years. She’s small for her age, with a shy, soft voice and a wry sense
of humour. At her lesson, I test her note-naming and find it, to be perfectly
frank, abysmal. We continue on
with the lesson, and start work on a new piece, Beethoven’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ecossaise in G Major</i>. I ask her to
sight-read the right hand part, and she peers at the music, figuring out what
the first note is. Then she plays through the first line of music fairly well,
doing an excellent job considering her terrible performance at note-naming.
However, in the second bar, there is an interval of a seventh. She misreads the
second note of the interval, ending up playing the end of the phrase a step too
low. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Despite not knowing her notes very well, Aria is a
half-decent sight-reader because she mostly reads by interval, simply going up
or down one note (a step) or two (a skip) as the music indicates. Larger
intervals are harder to read, so she sometimes makes mistakes with these, and
reading over a line break is much more difficult because it’s hard to see the
vertical relationship between the notes when they are on different lines. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Leonard, 9 years old, arrives for his lesson with a cheerful
smile.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He has been learning <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Silent Moon</i> by Nancy Telfer, but
when he plays it for me, he quickly runs into trouble, hitting a wrong note in
the second phrase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He can hear it too,
and restarts the phrase, this time landing on a different wrong note in the
same place. I notice that Leonard is not looking at the music; he is watching
his fingers. Despite the fact that the music book is open on front of him, he is
playing from memory, searching for the notes by ear. I’m concerned about his
ability to read the music, so I test his note-naming using stack of flashcards.
Leonard names the notes quickly and easily, so I open up his sight-reading book
to a simple exercise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Before he plays
it, I ask him to look at the music and tell me how many times the melody moves
by a skip instead of step. He puzzles through the music and incorrectly tells
me there are three skips in the melody.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, there is only one.</div>
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These two students use entirely different strategies for
reading music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leonard does well at reading
by note, while Aria’s strength is reading by interval.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Strong sight-readers combine the two
strategies. What you might not realize is that the two different strategies use
entirely different parts of the brain.</div>
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<br /></div>
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When we read music, the visual information travels from the
eyes to the visual cortex at the very back of the brain. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>The visual cortex receives that information
and then passes it on to other regions of the visual cortex that process that
information, sorting out contours of the things we see, how they’re oriented in
space, if they’re moving, what colour they are, and how bright. The brain needs
to do two main things with all this information: It has to answer the question
“what am I seeing?” and it has to answer the question “what should I do with
what I’m seeing?”</div>
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<br /></div>
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To answer these two questions, visual information is
processed through two very different pathways in the brain, known as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ventral</i> stream (vision for perception)
and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dorsal</i> stream (vision for
action). </div>
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The ventral stream, which involves the temporal lobe of the brain,
has long been known as the “what” stream, since it is the pathway we use to
recognize and name the things we are seeing. It is this pathway that we use for
note-naming. Imagine we see a note on the first space of the treble staff. In
the ventral stream, what we see match up the image of what we see with pictures
we have stored in memory, and this is how we know to name that note as a F.
This is how we recognize what we see, leading to a conscious perception of what
we are looking at, and a conscious understanding of what we see. In music
reading, we use the ventral stream for note-naming, recognizing musical symbols
and understanding their meaning, for conscious pattern recognition, and for
naming chords.</div>
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<br /></div>
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It’s this ventral stream that is a weakness in Aria’s sight-reading.
She has a hard time naming individual notes, so finding the correct note to play
at the beginning of a line or after a large interval is difficult. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Leonard, on the other hand, has a strong
ventral stream, but on its own it is not enough to make him a good
sight-reader.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also needs to have a
strong dorsal stream.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The dorsal stream, which involves the parietal lobe, directly
relates what we see to the actions that are required. The parietal lobe plays
an important role in spatial perception, and so this pathway processes the
spatial aspects of what we’re looking at, and matches it up with our knowledge
of what to do with that object. This activates the correct movement. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>In music reading, we use the dorsal stream to
know what movements to make to play straight-forward patterns, to know how far
to reach for each interval, to make the correct hand shapes for chords. The
dorsal stream automatically converts well-known visual cues into movements.</div>
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<br /></div>
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This is why Aria, who is terrible at note-naming, can sight-read
music pretty well. Her dorsal stream does a good job of reading intervals and
telling her what finger movements she should make.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leonard, on the other hand, tries to rely on his ventral stream for reading music. He can name the
notes well, but he doesn’t easily translate the written notes into how he should move his fingers.</div>
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<br /></div>
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How do I help these two students?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s not enough to just hand them a
sight-reading book and tell them to go practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aria needs to practice note-naming
specifically:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>matching up notes on the
staff with their names.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, she
should practice playing individual notes on the piano.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Flashcards are a good tool here.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leonard has different needs:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he should practice reading
intervallically.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An excellent resource
for this is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Sight-Reading-Drill-Book-Workbook/dp/1514263629/" target="_blank">The Sight Reading Drill Book</a></i> by Barbara Siemens, which systematically introduces intervals and
chord patterns, and encourages the student to read by interval and by hand
shape rather than by note-naming, strengthening the dorsal stream of visual
processing. Siemens describes this approach by saying, “It’s a
mind-finger thing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I think sometimes you
have to try to bypass that naming thing and just do it intuitively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Which means you have to drill it enough.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As an experienced piano teacher, Siemens saw
a need in her own students for intervallic sight-reading practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Because you don’t have time to think of
notes as you’re going.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The name thing is
just attaching a tag to something that should go intuitively.”</div>
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<br /></div>
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Every student has different strengths and weaknesses. This
is true even within a single skill such as sight-reading. As a teacher, it’s important
that I remember that and use different approaches to bolster students’
abilities and help them achieve their musical goals.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>References</b></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">Christine, the lovely parish co-ordinator
at our local church, smiles at me across the desk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m there to pay the rental charge for my
piano studio, located in the church basement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But she has something else in mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">“Are you around this Christmas?” She raises
her eyebrows hopefully.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Are you
available to play at the Christmas Eve service?”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">Last year we were away, traveling at
Christmas, but in previous years I’ve played my flute at the church on
Christmas Eve, adding some shimmer to an otherwise quiet evening for the small
congregation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two years ago I also roped
my children into singing, to the delight of the elderly ladies celebrating
their Christmas worship.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This year we
don’t have any plans for Christmas Eve, so I willingly agree to perform
something.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I know I’ll need to plan
music for a prelude, postlude, offertory and a solo during communion, in
addition to adding a flute descant to the hymns.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">What’s left to decide is the hard
part:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>what to play.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ll wait for the church music committee to
tell me what the hymns will be, and then I can pick my incidental music from
the remainder of the canon of Christmas tunes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">I have to confess, I am not thrilled about
any of those tunes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ve heard and
played them all a million times before.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">As a child, I loved Christmas music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I started early every year, spending a large
chunk of the fall belting out Christmas songs, often in the bathroom where I mistakenly
felt no one could hear me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My very first
book of sheet music, given to me before I could read music, and well before I
started playing an instrument, was a collection of Christmas carols.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I remember poring over the words, memorizing
every verse.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later, after I started
studying piano, the music itself was learned and played endlessly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The book, now battered and torn, still gets
pulled out every year.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">But after forty-some Decembers of listening
to the same Christmas songs, I admit to being entirely bored by them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Silent
Night?</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No thanks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">O Come
All Ye Faithful</i>?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Snore….<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even the slightly less common carols seem
utterly mundane.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I still have
to pick at least four to play on Christmas Eve.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">There <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">are</i>
newer, less familiar carols.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problem
is that no one really wants to hear them on Christmas Eve.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It turns out that it’s a natural human
phenomenon to prefer tunes we already know.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">Scientists call it the Mere Exposure
Effect:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>simply being exposed to
something (in this case a tune) makes you like it more when you meet it a
second time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Mere Exposure Effect in
music was first shown over one hundred years ago, and holds true for music of
all styles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Research studies that look
at this effect generally work like this:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>volunteers listen to a series of (usually unfamiliar) melodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, later, they hear another series of
melodies that includes some of the melodies they have heard before, and some
new melodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this second listening
period, they have to rate each tune on how much they like it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results show that hearing a piece of
music (even only once!) predisposes you to like it more than other music you
have not heard before.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">The Mere Exposure Effect tells us something
about the different ways in which we remember music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And that’s because this effect holds true
whether you remember having heard the tune before or not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If people are distracted with another task
while hearing the music, they often don’t remember they’ve heard it before, but
they will still give it a higher rating than tunes they’ve never heard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This shows that the mere exposure effect is
dependent on our implicit, unconscious memory for music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In contrast, if we consciously remember
having heard the tune before, this uses our explicit memory. So we might not
remember having heard an unfamiliar Christmas carol before, but the more we’ve
heard it, the more we’ll like it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">Researchers want to understand why this
effect works the way it does:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>what is it
about being exposed to something that makes us enjoy it more?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One theory is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">perceptual fluency model</i>, which proposes that when we’ve been
exposed to something before, our brains have an easier time processing the
information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first time we hear a
new tune, we don’t know exactly what will come next, and so, whether we’re aware
of it or not, our minds are constantly trying to guess what the next note or
phrase will be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That’s a lot of work,
and makes us feel as if the tune is difficult.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>When we’ve heard the music before, we might not remember exactly how it
goes, but our brain does a better job of predicting the next note, and this is
less work, making us like the music more.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-CA">A second theory is called the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">two-factor model</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This idea is that our aesthetic rating of a
piece of music is based on two things:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>our dislike for things that are too new or complex, and our boredom with
things that are two simple or familiar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In other words, we like to be able to predict what will happen next, but
if it is completely obvious what will happen next, that’s no fun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The two-factor model suggests that in
addition to the mere exposure effect, there should also be a satiation effect,
in which people start to dislike stimuli that they have been exposed to too
many times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(As in... ahem… Christmas
carols).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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/><span lang="EN-CA"> </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-CA">Studies looking for a satiation effect have
had mixed results, depending on the stimuli used, but it looks like the more
realistic the stimuli are, the more likely they are to generate a satiation
effect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was found for musical
stimuli in a study from the University of Toronto (Szpunar et al., 2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the researchers in this study played
computer generated atonal sequences for people, they did not find that the
subjects got bored of them, even after 64 exposures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, when the same experiment was
conducted using excerpts of orchestral recordings, they found that people gave
lower ratings to the excerpts they had heard many times.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-CA">Where does this leave me in my Christmas
Eve music planning?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Well, clearly I want
to try to hit that sweet spot in the liking curve, by playing something that
people have heard before, but not too many times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ll aim for less-familiar carols, and maybe
include something that most people won’t have heard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They may not appreciate this year, but when
they hear that tune again another Christmas, they’ll like it better.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span lang="EN-CA">References</span></span></b></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Green, A.C., Bærentsen, K.B.,
Stødkilde-Jørgensen, H., Roepstorff, A., and Vuust, P. (2012). Listen, learn,
like! Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involved in the mere exposure effect in
music. Neurol Res Int <i>2012</i>, 846270.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span lang="FR-BE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Peretz,
I., Gaudreau, D., and Bonnel, A.-M. (1998). </span><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Exposure effects on music
preference and recognition. Memory & Cognition <i>26</i>, 884–902.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Szpunar, K.K., Schellenberg,
E.G., and Pliner, P. (2004). Liking and Memory for Musical Stimuli as a
Function of Exposure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition <i>30</i>, 370–381.</span></span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-3526612332695195652016-12-07T11:45:00.001-08:002017-03-05T14:04:55.945-08:00Brain Activity: Is Less More?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuVHe4OB4rSc6kawQCtTMVTAgENH9iFCHUMfxRNSpmmsSg2zWN_VIRNAYihNv7_7w3fc0KihKGteJFkQPSeJ7fv0zmaahHn_7LfrpxEfNA8vvM3fdJiaA7oYYlvLe_fGFE-1G3umuVj-xs/s1600/Chein+figure+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuVHe4OB4rSc6kawQCtTMVTAgENH9iFCHUMfxRNSpmmsSg2zWN_VIRNAYihNv7_7w3fc0KihKGteJFkQPSeJ7fv0zmaahHn_7LfrpxEfNA8vvM3fdJiaA7oYYlvLe_fGFE-1G3umuVj-xs/s320/Chein+figure+1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Areas of the brain that show a decrease in activity upon learning a task (from Chein and Schneider, 2005)</td></tr>
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Imagine an experiment where scientists are using fMRI to
look at activity in a person’s brain before and after the person learns how to do a
particular task. (The task itself doesn’t matter too much right now, but it
could be something like tapping a particular sequence of fingers, or reading
backwards, or picking out pictures of dogs hidden in a complicated landscape.) The
scientists scan the person’s brain while she is doing the task for the very
first time. Then they have the person practice doing the task until she's
really good at it. Finally, the person gets scanned again, while performing
this well-learned task. What do you think the difference will be in the
person’s brain activity? Would you expect to see more activity or less
activity?</div>
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I’ve been slogging through scientific papers that look at
changes in brain activity (using either <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" target="_blank">fMRI</a>
or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" target="_blank">PET</a>) when we
learn skills, and growing increasingly puzzled. In some cases, when people
learn to do something, there is more activity in their brains, and the
researchers say: “See, that’s because they’re using more of their brains for
this!” But sometimes there is less activity, and the researchers conclude that
when we are good at something, our brains are more efficient.</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Don’t those two things sound contradictory to you? Which is
it? Do we use less brain power or more brain power when we’re good at doing a
task? I’ve spent some time looking into this question, and when you get into
the details, the answer is… it depends.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But it does make sense, trust me.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The best explanation that I found was in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Expertise-Performance-Handbooks-Psychology/dp/0521600812/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1481138147&sr=8-1&keywords=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Expertise+and+Expert+Performance" target="_blank"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: ElectraLH-RegularSC;">The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance</span></i></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: ElectraLH-RegularSC;">. There’s a chapter by Nicole
Hill and Walter Schneider entitled “Brain </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Changes in the Development of Expertise: Neuroanatomical and
Neurophysiological Evidence about Skill-Based Adaptations”. They suggest that
when we learn a skill, there are a number of different patterns of changes in
brain activity that are seen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">One of the
most common patterns is a decrease in activity in parts of the brain that make
up the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">control network</i>. These are the
parts of the brain responsible for working memory, attention, decision-making,
and sequencing steps in a task. They’re active when we perform any task that
isn’t well-learned, whether it’s a motor task, a perceptual task, or a
reasoning task. When we gain experience with a task, we don’t need to devote as
much concentration to it. We learn what steps follow which, and what is
required to efficiently get the job done. Once we’re experienced at a task, the
control network is not required to do as much work, so activity decreases in
these areas of the brain.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">A second
pattern that is commonly seen is an increase in activity in parts of the brain
specifically related to performing the task. For a motor task such as a
sequence of finger taps, there is an increase in activity in the primary motor
cortex of the brain (as shown by Avi Karni and colleagues in 1995). This is
believed to be due to the recruitment of more neurons into the representation
of the movement and supports the idea that networks of neurons in the primary
motor cortex can code for sequences of movements. So when musicians are playing,
there is a larger part of the primary motor cortex that is active, causing their hands to move
in well-learned sequences.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">A third
pattern is known as functional reorganization, in which different areas of the
brain are seen to be active when comparing novices vs. experts. For instance, in
motor learning tasks such as learning a sequence of key-presses, when we
initially are trying to learn the sequence, there is a lot of activity in the
cerebellum, but once the sequence is well-learned, the cerebellum is much less active. Instead, there is an increase in activity in the
striatum, a part of the brain believed to be responsible for (among other
things) sequences of movements. Julien Doyon and colleagues, who reported this in 2002, conclude that the cerebellum has an important role in learning a motor task, but much less of a role in performing the task once it is well-learned.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">All three
patterns can be seen when learning different aspects of music, depending on
what the learning task is. And sometimes all three patterns occur at the same
time, so that we see a decrease in activity in control regions of the brain, an increase in
regions specifically related to a task, and also some transfer of activity to
regions that are not initially active. This is part of why it is so difficult to interpret data
about activity in the brain. Understanding what each region of the brain does
in relation to the task at hand allows us to tease apart the differences we see.
And conversely, seeing how the activity changes in a particular area of the
brain helps us understand how it contributes to learning and to performance of
a skilled task.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: ElectraLH-RegularSC;"></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: ElectraLH-RegularSC;">References</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926641005002296" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Chein, J.M., and Schneider, W. (2005). Neuroimaging studies of practice-related change: fMRI and meta-analytic evidence of a domain-general control network for learning. Cognitive Brain Research 25,607–623.</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/2/1017.long" target="_blank">
</a></span><br />
<div class="csl-bib-body" style="line-height: 1.35;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/2/1017.long" target="_blank">
</a></span><div class="csl-entry">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/2/1017.long" target="_blank">Doyon, J., Song, A.W., Karni, A., Lalonde, F., Adams, M.M., and Ungerleider, L.G. (2002). Experience-dependent changes in cerebellar contributions to motor sequence learning. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. <i>99</i>, 1017–1022.</a></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzotero.org%3A2&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.022615199&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11805340&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Experience-dependent%20changes%20in%20cerebellar%20contributions%20to%20motor%20sequence%20learning&rft.jtitle=Proceedings%20of%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%20of%20the%20United%20States%20of%20America&rft.stitle=Proc.%20Natl.%20Acad.%20Sci.%20U.S.A.&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.aufirst=Julien&rft.aulast=Doyon&rft.au=Julien%20Doyon&rft.au=Allen%20W%20Song&rft.au=Avi%20Karni&rft.au=Francois%20Lalonde&rft.au=Michelle%20M%20Adams&rft.au=Leslie%20G%20Ungerleider&rft.date=2002-01-22&rft.pages=1017-1022&rft.spage=1017&rft.epage=1022&rft.issn=0027-8424"></span></span>
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</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Hill, N.M., and Schneider, W. (2006). Brain Changes
in the Development of Expertise: Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological
Evidence about Skill-Based Adaptations. In <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise
and Expert Performance</i>, ed. Ericsson, K.A., Charness N., Feltovich, P.J., and Hoffman, R. R. (Cambridge University Press). </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v377/n6545/abs/377155a0.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Karni, A., Meyer, G., Jezzard, P., Adams, M.M.,Turner, R., and Ungerleider, L.G. (1995). Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature 377,155–158.</span></a></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074742702940918" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ungerleider, L.G., Doyon, J., and Karni, A. (2002). Imaging brain plasticity during motor skill learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 78,553–564.</span></a></div>
<br />
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-90988201640176747332016-11-14T09:35:00.002-08:002016-11-14T09:36:20.116-08:00Multiple Rhythm Skills<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi54RBhtNDHYhFLsvs7enw6Z1-h64wXyD_Ew6quhpBbMZ1c5WrEF0PYJAKBN_UtkCN4RCNy_5sXrWM-5KSNvW16M9-ZK-DWsRzLm5e25_KA4-HbRSDg8NkDxfKxVbKspwYx6VUffag0Lmbo/s1600/journal.pone.0136645.g001.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi54RBhtNDHYhFLsvs7enw6Z1-h64wXyD_Ew6quhpBbMZ1c5WrEF0PYJAKBN_UtkCN4RCNy_5sXrWM-5KSNvW16M9-ZK-DWsRzLm5e25_KA4-HbRSDg8NkDxfKxVbKspwYx6VUffag0Lmbo/s400/journal.pone.0136645.g001.PNG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure from Tierney & Kraus, 2015.</td></tr>
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It’s a rainy Monday night and I’m giving Nicola her weekly
lesson on the grand piano in the sanctuary of the church.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She’s a reticent girl with an engaging, shy
smile, who practices consistently and plays well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In particular, she has an impeccable sense of
rhythm, always performing her pieces with accurate and consistent timing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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Nicola is working towards her RCM Grade 4 exam, so we take
some time in the lesson to practice for the ear-training requirements she will
face.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She correctly names intervals and
chord qualities as I play them, and flawlessly copies back a short melody at
the keyboard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But when I turn to the
rhythm clap-backs, her face falls and she gets a worried wrinkle in her
forehead.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We both know that this is her
weak spot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I count in and then play a
three-bar melody for her, emphasizing the strong beats to help her maintain a
sense of meter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I encourage her to tap
along silently as I play the tune a second time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then it’s her turn to clap the rhythm back to
me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She claps the first measure
correctly, but falters in the second measure and just stops.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She clearly has no idea what comes next.</div>
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<br /></div>
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I never could quite make sense of why this is so difficult
for her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her sense of rhythm is
fantastic, but clap-backs stump her every time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>She just can’t keep the rhythm in her head long enough to clap it back.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So when I saw a research paper entitled
“Evidence for Multiple Rhythmic Skills”, I immediately thought of Nicola and
was drawn in.</div>
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<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0136645" target="_blank">The paper, published in PLOS ONE in 2015</a>, comes from <a href="http://www.brainvolts.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank">the lab of Nina Kraus</a>, who has done a lot of
work looking at how musical training affects language development in children,
and in particular how it affects reading skills.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Research has shown a link between rhythm
skills and reading ability, and so it seems like it would be important to
understand what we mean by “rhythm skills”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Are all rhythm-related abilities grouped together in the brain so that
if you’re good at one rhythm task you’ll be good at another?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or can rhythm skills be divided into
different groups that rely on different brain networks?</div>
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<br /></div>
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To answer these questions, Tierney and Kraus tested 67 volunteers
on four different rhythm tasks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the
first, the volunteers simply had to tap along (on a conga drum) to a metronome,
and the researchers kept track of how closely the tapping matched the
metronome.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the second task, the
volunteers again had to tap to a metronome, but this time the tempo was
variable, so they had to adjust their tapping to the changing speeds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the third task, the volunteers were
presented with a repeating rhythm, and had pick up the rhythm and tap along with it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And the fourth task was similar to the rhythm
clap-backs my students have to do:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the
volunteers heard a rhythm and had to tap it back.</div>
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The researchers looked for correlations between the
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usually good at the other. The researchers present this type of data as a
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzm9qscUt40IG2ZAW0jVNnNNd4zjEmdHofJBU7tZlztYa1TG8Tn-GR4OMpQzKxzHG_XYzxVgtL3uB6jrDyFrhpUTQ6M9MM6ge3eUfnxGXhCfmF1kJXqlqvaIFggGtI316hed28ysItt5Oi/s1600/Tierney+figure.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzm9qscUt40IG2ZAW0jVNnNNd4zjEmdHofJBU7tZlztYa1TG8Tn-GR4OMpQzKxzHG_XYzxVgtL3uB6jrDyFrhpUTQ6M9MM6ge3eUfnxGXhCfmF1kJXqlqvaIFggGtI316hed28ysItt5Oi/s320/Tierney+figure.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure from Tierney & Kraus, 2015</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">It turns out (as you can see in the figure above) that performance on
the metronome tapping and tempo adaptation tasks was
correlated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The researchers conclude
these are both based on the same skill of beat tapping.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third and fourth task, tapping along to
rhythms and remembering rhythms were also correlated, both based on rhythm
memory skill.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there wasn’t any real
correlation between the two groups of tasks.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">The
researchers state their conclusions pretty clearly:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">These results support the theory that there are multiple
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This
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</span>And what that means for me as her teacher is that I need to focus on
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working on other types of rhythm tasks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s a mistake for me to think of rhythm as one thing, and then just
have in mind that Nicola needs help with rhythm, when in fact most of her
rhythm skills are excellent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So I’ll be
working specifically on rhythm memory with her – practicing formal clap-backs
as well as simple “repeat after me” exercises, and looking for patterns in the
rhythms that she can grab on to.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Reference:</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0136645" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Tierney, A., and Kraus, N. (2015). Evidence forMultiple Rhythmic Skills. PLOS ONE 10, e0136645.</span></a></div>
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-74352163683171114572016-10-20T08:53:00.001-07:002016-10-20T08:54:26.088-07:00The Happy Song<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Music psychology research at Goldsmiths, University of
London has led to concrete results:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“<a href="http://www.gold.ac.uk/news/sound-of-happy/" target="_blank">thefirst song scientifically tested to make babies happy</a>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While of course nothing is guaranteed -- for
instance if your child is miserably teething, it’s entirely possible that
nothing will make him happy -- thousands of parents gave their input as to the
sounds that make their babies happy, and then 56 children were tested on their
responses to different versions of the song.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Babies cannot tell us in words whether they like a piece of
music, but scientists were able to gauge their reactions based on heart rate,
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the music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the responses that was
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not</i> measured was brain activity,
maybe because hooking a baby up for an EEG is a big effort, and maybe
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But on the same day that “The Happy Song” showed up in
my news feed, I also saw this post:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“<a href="http://qz.com/812498/eeg-brain-scans-can-tell-if-you-like-a-song-better-than-any-music-streaming-service-algorithm/" target="_blank">The only way an algorithm can tell if you really like a song is by scanning your brain</a>.” It reports on a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020025516000074" target="_blank">small-scale mobile EEG system</a> designed to assess how well
people like a piece of music <span style="color: #d9d9d9; mso-themecolor: background1; mso-themeshade: 217;"></span>– hook it up to your computer
and you would never need to hit “like” again.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It would be interesting to take a mini-EEG system like this, test
babies’ responses to the Happy Song, correlate the EEG responses with the
physiological and behavioural responses, and then have a neurological-based system
to test what music the babies like.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But
then again, babies’ smiles and laughter are pretty good indicators too.</div>
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You can listen to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KTkWdcnuNEI" target="_blank">The Happy Song </a>on Youtube (and below). More details at <a href="http://soundofhappy.com/">soundofhappy.com</a>.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/XjpraGVs2Sg/0.jpg" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XjpraGVs2Sg?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
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<br /></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-64803604426751891092016-03-01T11:15:00.000-08:002016-03-01T11:15:26.898-08:00Finger movements and tension<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Try this:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>hold up
your hand with your fingers extended, and then turn it so you’re looking at it
side-on, with all your fingers lined up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Now</span> bend your middle finger, trying to keep the others standing
straight up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What you probably see as
you move your middle finger is that your ring finger also moves out of place,
no matter how much your try to keep it still.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Your index finger probably moves a little too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Don’t get too stressed if it’s hard to move
just your middle finger:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>our fingers are
designed to move together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The thumb moves
quite independently, but when we move each of the long fingers, other fingers
also try to move.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZc5kYUeJLvhs47Z9n6IjzCBj2fG-3xxz2DpbCZsap1_ukcWAxIev-VI51j3k1YnXhZgNFD8fJssrUmjDeQWf2Mr-7_T1zwEaoD89D-nonv2Y85-iovjPto1d_i0v1mtSOvXWpjmJ5ewbO/s1600/2016-02-29+09.52.37.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZc5kYUeJLvhs47Z9n6IjzCBj2fG-3xxz2DpbCZsap1_ukcWAxIev-VI51j3k1YnXhZgNFD8fJssrUmjDeQWf2Mr-7_T1zwEaoD89D-nonv2Y85-iovjPto1d_i0v1mtSOvXWpjmJ5ewbO/s200/2016-02-29+09.52.37.jpg" width="150" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMU3RaLb1FOQT2r8K8xLmHXxG8SsFWkOe9D-vsS13MBZcUbNBEJVVm6mIHCHPhRvaLioygVwOUcg1llfDVHWTld74irlOHsqS5dQVFWIraTFALYTfuQXM7qNqBRkWzIQ0NfQ09bczyonkG/s1600/2016-02-29+09.52.45.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMU3RaLb1FOQT2r8K8xLmHXxG8SsFWkOe9D-vsS13MBZcUbNBEJVVm6mIHCHPhRvaLioygVwOUcg1llfDVHWTld74irlOHsqS5dQVFWIraTFALYTfuQXM7qNqBRkWzIQ0NfQ09bczyonkG/s200/2016-02-29+09.52.45.jpg" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">When flexing one finger, the other fingers move out of place too.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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There are two main reasons that this is true:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first, each finger is connected to adjacent
fingers by skin webbing, tendons, and muscle fascia, so that when we move one
finger, it pulls on its neighbours.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
second and more relevant reason is that our muscle control of our fingers is
not completely separate.</div>
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<br /></div>
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You might think that motor control of our fingers works like
this:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a certain area of our brain is
responsible for each finger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When that
part of the brain is active, a message gets sent to the muscle responsible for
that finger, which causes that finger to move.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this simple scenario, there is a straight line connection between 1
brain area, 1 muscle, and 1 finger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, this is not how finger control works.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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The neurons that send motor commands to our finger muscles
are located in the hand area of the primary motor cortex.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there is not a separate area for each
finger. <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0713-0_46" target="_blank">Studies looking at which neurons control which finger movements</a> have found that the neurons that control the separate fingers are all kind of
jumbled together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, a lot of the
neurons that were studied were found participate in the control of more than
one finger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This idea of mapping neurons onto finger movements gets even
more complicated when you look at the muscles that move our fingers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The muscles responsible for flexing (bending)
and extending (straightening) our fingers are located in our forearms, and
connect to the finger bones through tendons which go through our hands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there are not separate sets of muscles
for each finger.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">In fact, there are only two muscles that control flexing the four long
fingers:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">flexor digitalis profundus</i> and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">flexor digitalis superficialis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>Each
of these muscles has four tendons, one connecting to each of the long fingers
of the hand. The muscle has
different sections (known as muscle bellies) that each primarily activate one
finger, but they are not completely separate, and they also often contract
together, since the neurons that activate the muscles don't act independently either.</div>
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</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
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Similarly, to extend
the fingers, there is one main muscle:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">extensor digitorum communis</i>,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>involved in extending all four long
fingers. There are also two smaller muscles:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">extensor digitali minimi </i>(extends
the little finger) and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">extensor
indicis</i> (extends the index finger).</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
If we don’t have separate
muscles controlling each finger, how do we move them independently?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">The most
likely possibility is that we move our fingers individually due to the combined
action of more than one muscle, each of which has different amounts
of control over each finger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
conclusion comes from the lab of <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/15/1/284.short" target="_blank">Marc Schieber at the University of Rochester, who showed in 1995</a> that when monkeys move their fingers
individually, more than one muscle is active, and the amount of muscle activity
in each muscle is different for the movements of each finger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">In other words, when we try to move one
finger independently, we don’t just contract a muscle to move that finger, we
also have to contract other muscles to prevent the other fingers from
moving.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, raising the ring
finger while keeping the middle finger still is difficult, because these fingers not only share a common extensor, but they are also joined
mechanically.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to raise just the ring finger, you
need to activate the flexor going to the middle finger (in order to stabilize it), and
at the same time activate the common extensor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s also really handy to extend the little finger at the same time,
since this will pull on the ring finger and help it extend.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>See how complicated that is?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No wonder moving our fingers individually is difficult.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Also, no wonder we can build up a lot of
tension in our hands while playing musical instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s very common for children to play with their hands very tense. By maintaining
activity in both the flexor and extensor muscles of the fingers, they can
stabilize their finger joints and prevent unwanted movement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This strategy of co-contraction does work, up
to a certain point.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problems very
quickly outweigh the advantages:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with
too much tension in the hand, moving each finger is more work, and therefore
quick and fluent movements of the fingers are impossible.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Here is a video of a young boy whom I
teach who clearly has excess tension in his hand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Notice how his fifth finger is extended as he
plays.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dw2-y-FvPmc3Aua57W0TMI3uj7Qy4knWlSmQg9xSkZ_r2rmQDa8Onc2Xef-mjH3fAdv9SgEFc7fU2hXqtUeBA' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">This child’s problems with tension get
worse as he tries to increase the tempo of his pieces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is absolutely unable to play fast
passages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is typical of students
with tension issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Worse, excess
tension leads to fatigue, pain, and eventually injury. Obviously, this
situation is something to be avoided.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: list 42.55pt;">
<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">What’s not obvious is the best way to
help students who have too much tension. When I do an on-line search, most of
the advice (as in <a href="http://melaniespanswick.com/2015/01/24/resolving-tension-in-piano-playing-article-for-eptas-piano-professional/" target="_blank">this article</a></span><a href="http://melaniespanswick.com/2015/01/24/resolving-tension-in-piano-playing-article-for-eptas-piano-professional/"></a>)<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"> is to re-align
body and hand position, and then play simple exercises while focusing on mental
awareness of tension in the hand, wrist, and arm. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The good news is that our control
over individual fingers is not set in stone:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>we can learn to use different muscle strategies to move our fingers
independently (as suggested in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452214009130" target="_blank">Winges & Furuya, 2015</a>; <a href="http://jn.physiology.org/content/92/6/3320" target="_blank">Semmler <i>et al.</i>, 2004</a>). This is part of musical
training:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>all those Hanon exercises for
the piano (and Moyse studies for the flute, etc.) are designed to help us learn
to efficiently control our finger muscles so that we can move fluently between
different notes.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
If you’ve had success in
minimizing hand tension (either for yourself or your students), I’d love to
hear about it in the comments.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/15/1/284.short" target="_blank">Schieber, M.H. (1995)</a>. Muscular production of individuated finger
movements: the roles of extrinsic finger muscles. J. Neurosci. <i>15</i>,
284–297. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0713-0_46" target="_blank">Schieber, M.H. (2002)</a>. Motor cortex and the distributed anatomy of
finger movements. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. <i>508</i>, 411–416. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA; mso-themecolor: text1;"><a href="http://jn.physiology.org/content/92/6/3320" target="_blank">Semmler, J.G., Sale, M.V., Meyer, F.G., and Nordstrom, M.A. (2004).</a> Motor-unit coherence and its relation
with synchrony are influenced by training. J. Neurophysiol. <i>92</i>,
3320–3331.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452214009130" target="_blank">Winges, S.A., and Furuya, S. (2015)</a>. Distinct digit kinematics by
professional and amateur pianists. Neuroscience <i>284</i>, 643–652.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-62074007832783902852015-11-20T10:01:00.000-08:002015-11-20T10:01:23.965-08:00Get moving: exercise improves motor skill learning<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMKWca-Wvo06gVMTRukrn544sTUnVAlOT-5psTYkXW4T_hxt_6lsLIqECaEWfe5Ka_yJhHSsvgfKa2onWMYjGHhQGKfPsurFYJa8YxHoZcwlLW-1ZxuW6YZtsEioIWpnoXwhIXicJxN_nM/s1600/happy-girl-running-346x544.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMKWca-Wvo06gVMTRukrn544sTUnVAlOT-5psTYkXW4T_hxt_6lsLIqECaEWfe5Ka_yJhHSsvgfKa2onWMYjGHhQGKfPsurFYJa8YxHoZcwlLW-1ZxuW6YZtsEioIWpnoXwhIXicJxN_nM/s320/happy-girl-running-346x544.jpg" width="203" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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What if I told you there’s a way to improve your practicing
efficiency and get healthier at the same time?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s true:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>recent research has
shown that moderate exercise right before learning a motor skill improves learning.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141393" target="_blank">The study, published this month in the journal PLoS ONE</a>, had
three groups of people learning a motor skill task that involved using a force
transducer to move a cursor through a kind of maze on the screen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One group had to run on a treadmill for 30
minutes right before learning the task, the second group also ran on the
treadmill but then got a one-hour break before doing the maze task, and the
third group had a leisurely walk instead of exercising.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The researchers found that the people in the running group
were the best learners, while the people who just walked or who ran and then
rested learned at about the same rate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
researchers actually looked at two different kinds of information about how the
people learned:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the number of errors
they made, and the speed at which they completed the task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These two aspects of performing a motor skill
are usually inversely related.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Think
about playing a complicated piece of music:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>if you play it slowly, you will make fewer mistakes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you play it quickly, you’ll make more
mistakes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is known as the
speed-accuracy trade-off, and it applies to pretty much everything we do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So does exercising before learning alter the
speed or the accuracy of the motor skill, or both?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The study found that the speed at which people moved the
cursor on the screen was not affected by exercising.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, people who exercised right before
the learning the motor skill made fewer errors than those who didn’t exercise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, exercising increased accuracy
but not speed of the motor skill.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Why does exercising help learning?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s been known for a while that, in general,
exercise increases neuroplasticity – the capacity of the brain to change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s thought that exercise increases the
levels of hormones and growth factors that foster the chemical changes underlying
learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But most of the previous
studies have looked at the effect of exercise on declarative memory, the memory
for facts and events, rather than motor learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here we can see that exercise also boosts
motor skill learning, the kind of learning that we do when we sit down to
practice our musical instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So you might consider going for a run or a bike ride before
your daily practice session.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We all know
exercise is good for us, but it’s also good to know that it’ll help us learn
our scales and pieces better.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /><br />
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-73824765606842206392015-02-06T10:56:00.002-08:002015-02-06T10:57:15.226-08:00Music for Learning<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">How many elements can you name in order? (Source: <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
My children are driving me
crazy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are listening, over and
over, to<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUDDiWtFtEM" target="_blank"> a song that lists all the elements of the periodic table to the tune of the Can-Can by Offenbach</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Repeatedly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Unceasingly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again and
again.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They enthusiastically sing along,
trying to commit every word to memory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s
all in the cause of good learning, but still, I’m going cross-eyed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even when the music finally stops, it’s still
going in my head, on endless loop.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
On the other hand:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">my kids
are memorizing the periodic table of the elements!</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I should, just maybe, quit complaining and be
geekfully grateful for their eager efforts to improve their minds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I also love that they are able to do this
because the information is set to music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
The use of song as a mnemonic
device is well-known and we’ve pretty much all used this technique, starting
with singing the ABC song to learn the alphabet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many university students make use of songs to
memorize facts; I recommend it to my neuroscience students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I even own a copy of <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Biochemists-Song-Book-Harold-Baum/dp/0748404163/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1422553026&sr=8-2&keywords=biochemists+songbook" target="_blank"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Biochemists’ Songbook</i></a> by Harold Baum, which is a whole book of songs designed to make learning the metabolic pathways
easier.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All of this suggests that
wrapping information up in music makes it easier to remember<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But is that really true?</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And, if so, why?</div>
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<br /></div>
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There are a number of possible reasons
that remembering a song is easier than remembering a list of information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first is that presenting information as a
song provides a temporal structure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
turns a jumble of unordered information into a sequence, with one idea leading
to the next in a particular order.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Imposing structure on information is a key way to improve recall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/?&fa=main.doiLanding&doi=10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1471" target="_blank">A research study by Wanda Wallace</a> in 1994 showed that text is better remembered when set
to a simple, repetitive melody than when spoken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She discusses the idea of sequential recall,
and describes how it works:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>when we
learn information always in the same order, one piece of information cues the
next piece in the sequence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also,
connecting each bit of text to a particular part of the melody means that even
if you forget one part of the text, the music will help cue the next line of
text.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
The second idea as to why music
helps us remember information is that the structure of the music provides clues
as to the words.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For instance, the shape
and rhythm of the melodic line tell us how many syllables should be present in
the words that go with it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is
redundant information:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>both the words
and melody tell us how many syllables should be present, and so it makes it
easier to remember. <a href="http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.106.3.927-957" target="_blank">A study in 2008 by Purnell-Webb and Speelman</a> looked to see
whether the reputed effects of music on memory for text were due to melody or
rhythm, and whether the music needed to be familiar to the listener to be most
effective.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They found that learning text
to a familiar tune or rhythm conferred a memory advantage over spoken text, and
concluded that it is the rhythmic aspects of the music that help people
remember the words, by providing temporal structure and redundant cues, as
discussed above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Some researchers, however, dispute
the effect of music on memory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If we
have to learn both text and music at the same time, this is more information to
learn and should make it harder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There
are indeed some studies showing that <a href="http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.3758/BF03193445" target="_blank">spoken text is in fact easier to remember than sung text </a>, especially if the melody is novel and
non-repetitive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even in the studies
where music does enhance memory, the effect is pretty small. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>And yet, we've all used music to help us learn facts. Why are the experimental results so
different from our real-life experience?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I believe this discrepancy is due to the fact that in the laboratory,
the number of repetitions is controlled:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the subjects in the experiment listened to the spoken information the
same number of times as they listened to the sung information.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
The real strength of using music to
remember information is that people<i> love</i> music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Listening to a lively song about chemistry is infinitely more enjoyable
than listening to a dry recitation of all the elements in the periodic table,
so we’ll listen to it more<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In short:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>music adds motivation. In an article entitled, <a href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04546.x" target="_blank">"Is Memory for Music Special?"</a>, Matthew Schulkind suggests, that “the ‘special’
power of music as a mnemonic device may be that it fosters excessive
rehearsal”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, putting the
information into a song makes it more fun, so we practice it more.</div>
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<br /></div>
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This is certainly the case with the
periodic table song.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My children are
unlikely to spend much time repeating a spoken list of chemical elements, but
they beg me to allow them to access YouTube so that they can sing along with
the video.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I relent, and while the music
of Offenbach swells around us, they dance around the living room, chorusing:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“There’s hydrogen and helium, then lithium,
beryllium, boron, carbon everywhere, nitrogen all through the air…"</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
I sigh, but smile smugly on the
inside.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These kids are going to ace
chemistry when they get to high school.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thanks, Offenbach and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/AsapSCIENCE" target="_blank">AsapSCIENCE</a>!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"><a href="http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/0142159X.2012.733042" target="_blank">Cirigliano, M.M. (2013). Musical mnemonics in health science: A first look. Medical Teacher 35, e1020–e1026</a>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.106.3.927-957" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Purnell-Webb, P., and Speelman, C.P. (2008).Effects of music on memory for text. Perceptual and Motor Skills 106,927–957.</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.3758/BF03193445" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Racette, A., and Peretz, I. (2007). Learninglyrics: To sing or not to sing? Memory & Cognition 35, 242–253.</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04546.x" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Schulkind, M.D. (2009). Is Memory for MusicSpecial? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1169, 216–224.</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/?&fa=main.doiLanding&doi=10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1471" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Wallace, W.T. (1994). Memory for music: Effect ofmelody on recall of text. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory,and Cognition 20, 1471–1485.</span></a></div>
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-6152004110804026732014-12-10T09:42:00.000-08:002017-01-27T09:29:55.474-08:00Visual Crowding<div class="MsoNormal">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUbWES-duV5QLjJAPPEUPCDyCfIVOoC1eT_QDkYoXK9t-y2a3YN4iqvCuGnRhznTZAfabgrS6kWfhwM_raqWqcPyCniwPTQBDO0t6a3binccfnuVSNXSs2C5Vj9cFjWmSZTbjGuG0NUN9J/s1600/DSCN3756-001.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUbWES-duV5QLjJAPPEUPCDyCfIVOoC1eT_QDkYoXK9t-y2a3YN4iqvCuGnRhznTZAfabgrS6kWfhwM_raqWqcPyCniwPTQBDO0t6a3binccfnuVSNXSs2C5Vj9cFjWmSZTbjGuG0NUN9J/s1600/DSCN3756-001.JPG" height="212" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Which looks easier to read?</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
It’s the same every year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Every fall, a few weeks into piano classes, I introduce my Sunbeams 3
class to the Preparatory Repertoire book from the Royal Conservatory of
Music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m always excited to get to this
point with my students; after months and months playing from the Music for
Young Children books, they are ready to start on the Royal Conservatory
pathway, heading off towards exam certification and the satisfaction of being
able to say “I have my Grade x piano”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I try to convey this excitement and sense of a new beginning
to the children, and I see that I’ve piqued their interest, but when I open the
book to show them the first piece they will learn, the response is always the
same:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Silence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Widened eyes.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
I know what they’re thinking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“It looks hard, doesn’t it?” I ask them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And it does.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The RCM music really does look a lot harder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s not, though.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These pieces
are not more difficult than the music these children already play.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
I open their current Sunbeams 3 book and place a page next
to the RCM prep book for comparison.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I
ask the students to tell me why they think the new music looks harder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They all gaze it for a moment, and then one
child will realize:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“It’s written
smaller”.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
Aha!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When things
are written smaller, they seem harder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Just knowing this fact helps the kids understand that this book isn’t
going to be more difficult to play.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But
unfortunately, the smaller print does actually make this music harder for the
children to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">read</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
As I discussed<a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2014/11/training-our-eyes.html" target="_blank"> in my last post </a>, when we read music,
we fixate our eyes on a particular note, reading it, and also reading the
adjacent notes that are in our peripheral vision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then we quickly flick our eyes forward and
fixate on another note further along the page.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s this business of reading in our peripheral vision that’s
problematic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
Take a look at the example below.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Focus your eyes on the dot in the
middle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You can read the single letter
on the left with no problem, correct?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But what about trying to read the middle of the three letters on the
right?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That letter “b” on the right is
much harder to read because the letters on either side interfere with our
perception of it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is the visual crowding effect, and
it has been shown to occur for all visual perception, whether of letters or
musical notes on a page, or for other objects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLaO3RntjSs9zAKp-vS4X5MLWNLlSR9-OInQBl0anWXlKLNlQqV3h-l4Z-_2cdoktT7qkwkTWjHZpPYVdNw6w-Sn2cc3JmaRDy7je3oNs0V7GOSnvcFL_R9UUHVs7zo4yu3bf-dOdGgl2r/s1600/crowded+letter+example.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLaO3RntjSs9zAKp-vS4X5MLWNLlSR9-OInQBl0anWXlKLNlQqV3h-l4Z-_2cdoktT7qkwkTWjHZpPYVdNw6w-Sn2cc3JmaRDy7je3oNs0V7GOSnvcFL_R9UUHVs7zo4yu3bf-dOdGgl2r/s1600/crowded+letter+example.png" height="20" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
When we read a page of music, our ability to take in a lot
of notes at one fixation is limited by crowding.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The further the notes are from our point
of focus, the more they are susceptible to crowding.<span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-CA; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span>Reading musical notation has a further crowding
problem that doesn’t exist in text reading:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the lines of the staff themselves act to crowd in the vertical
direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Compare these two notes, one
with flanking staff lines, and one without.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Can you see if the note is on or off of the line?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When there are flanking staff lines, it is
much harder to tell.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1G-upkeJiFhHFYcb021IdlBstm0_DLYXyJcH3I17sEK1U-ByIbb-4DBmJFPXCxHGx43eOJv062X4QrLWZiSX47DqCK4DqnYJ4fyFCEbKj_z-X7Qs9LEopU4ayFDh6NfxuiCPjzodVC-kf/s1600/vertical+crowding+example.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1G-upkeJiFhHFYcb021IdlBstm0_DLYXyJcH3I17sEK1U-ByIbb-4DBmJFPXCxHGx43eOJv062X4QrLWZiSX47DqCK4DqnYJ4fyFCEbKj_z-X7Qs9LEopU4ayFDh6NfxuiCPjzodVC-kf/s1600/vertical+crowding+example.png" height="72" width="640" /></a></div>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6229104466776159811" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6229104466776159811" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a>Interestingly, a<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3394230/" target="_blank"> study using exactly this kind of visual test </a>has shown that trained musicians have learned to overcome some of the
effects of crowding.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>People who are expert
music readers are better able to read crowded notes in their peripheral
vision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s as if their spatial
resolution for music notes is increased compared to non-musicians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The authors suggest that when we practice
reading music, we build a better representation of the visual musical elements
in our brains, which then helps our perception of the notes on the page.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The more we read music, the less crowded the
notes seem. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
But my students?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They
are not yet expert music-readers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ve
noticed that when the sheet music is hard to read, the children rely on their
ears to learn the piece, and ignore the written music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> This will not improve their music-reading skills</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>My kids still need their music to be well-spaced, so that adjacent notes
don’t interfere with each other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s
not so much that the notes need to be bigger, but they need to be less crowded,
both horizontally and vertically.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
fact, when I compare the RCM Prep book with the MYC materials, what I notice is
that the horizontal spacing is actually the same.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What’s obviously different between the two
books is the spacing between the lines of the staff.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The only way to reduce the vertical crowding
is to make larger spaces between adjacent notes and between the lines of the
staff – in other words, print it bigger.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I think a larger print encourages our young students to keep reading the
notes, rather than relying on their ears to learn the music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the notes are printed bigger and less
crowded,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>students are better able to
perceive the subtle differences between adjacent notes, making it more
worthwhile keeping their eyes on the page to decode the musical notation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Levi, D.M. (2011). Visual crowding. Curr. Biol. <i>21</i>,
R678–R679.</span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Pelli, D.G., Tillman, K.A., Freeman, J., Su, M.,
Berger, T.D., and Majaj, N.J. (2007). Crowding and eccentricity determine
reading rate. Journal of Vision <i>7</i>, 20–20.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Wong, Y.K., and Gauthier, I. (2012). Music-reading
expertise alters visual spatial resolution for musical notation. Psychon Bull
Rev <i>19</i>, 594–600.</span></div>
</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-91557008724200666492014-11-14T11:21:00.001-08:002017-01-27T09:29:55.476-08:00Training Our Eyes<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
My son, Rowan, plays piano pretty well for a nine-year-old,
but sight-reading is not one of his strengths.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He can name notes with the best of them, and can read rhythms like all
get-out, but actually sitting at the piano and sight-reading a piece of
music?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It's a little painful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ve been trying to figure out why that
is.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turns out (not really surprisingly),
sight-reading depends on a whole host of factors, and it’s not really
clear what are the best methods to improve sight-reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A<a href="http://pom.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0305735612463770" target="_blank"> recent paper by Jennifer Mishra</a> at the University of Missouri noted that
while there have been hundreds of research studies on trying to improve sight-reading,
most of them show that the training doesn’t really help.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mishra ran a meta-analysis on studies, trying
to pool together different types of sight-reading training to see if there are
any overall take-homes from all these studies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>She found that one of the best types of intervention might be to train how our
eyes move when we’re reading music.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
You might think that there is not much to know about eye
movements in music reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Surely we
just sweep our eyes slowly across the page, taking in each note, one at a
time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Right?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While it sure seems like this is what we do, it
is actually completely wrong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When we
read music (or text), our eyes make a series of fixations and saccades.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During a fixation, we focus our eyes on one
place on the page, usually centred on one particular note.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We stay focused on that note for about 250
ms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then we make a saccade:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>we flick our eyes ahead in the music, skipping
over a few notes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The saccade is very
fast, less than 50 ms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We then make
another fixation, then another saccade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Our whole reading experience consists of fixations and saccades.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We can only take in information during the
fixations; when our eyes are moving, we actually can’t really see anything, so
there’s a little blip of time when we’re not taking in any visual
information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We don’t notice this,
though, because our brains fill in that gap.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
We also don’t notice that we’re not focusing on
every single note in turn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We focus on
one note, then skip ahead several notes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That doesn’t mean that we don’t see the notes in between.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We read them using our peripheral vision.<br />
<br />
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For example, in the music above, we might start by focusing
on the D, indicated by the first circle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The red line shows the saccade to the fourth note.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We never actually focus on the E and F# in
between; we just read them while we’re focusing on the D.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But clearly there’s a limit to how far ahead
we can read while keeping our eyes fixed on that D.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That limit is called our perceptual
span:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>how much we can see in one
fixation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Studies have shown that we generally can
perceive between two to four beats ahead of our focus.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, beginners, especially children, probably read
note-by-note, not perceiving further ahead in the music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So one approach to improving sight-reading is
to improve students’ perceptual span.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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Surprisingly, there has been very little published research
on this topic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A doctoral dissertation
by Robert Lemons in 1984 used the then-cutting-edge technology of a
microcomputer to try to improve perceptual span in college music students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The students had to play the notes as they
flashed for sub-second times onto a computer monitor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the training went on, more notes were
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students who did not have perceptual span training.</div>
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<br /></div>
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And while in the 80’s it was harder for people to lay their
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straight-forward.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It only took me a
couple of minutes to set up an animation in powerpoint to flash notes onto my
tablet PC screen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I’m experimenting on my son to see whether I can increase his perceptual
span by this kind of training, and whether it helps his sight-reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ll let you know what I turn up.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>References</b></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span>Lemons, R.M. (1984). The development and trial of microcomputer-assisted
techniques to supplement traditional training in musical sight reading.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span>Madell, J., and Hébert, S. (2008). Eye Movements and Music Reading:
Where Do We Look Next? Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal <i>26</i>,
157–170.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span>Mishra, J. (2014). Improving sightreading accuracy: A meta-analysis.
Psychology of Music <i>42</i>, 131–156.</span></span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-37247021291589711942014-10-30T12:29:00.000-07:002014-10-30T12:29:35.537-07:00Curiosity and Learning<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi96Ys-cUPD2wBOib23dfxH2sTcVP0VKHIe0BEDgG5dQFjtFCie6vxV6qMvhj7kuq8MwFb8on7FCciVmXVDaEfCOfbiMnhfgEzek1o9Kv2RYxOD08ktp22GO0YMx8iIp49iMwyb37NOJkTQ/s1600/question-479660_1280.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi96Ys-cUPD2wBOib23dfxH2sTcVP0VKHIe0BEDgG5dQFjtFCie6vxV6qMvhj7kuq8MwFb8on7FCciVmXVDaEfCOfbiMnhfgEzek1o9Kv2RYxOD08ktp22GO0YMx8iIp49iMwyb37NOJkTQ/s1600/question-479660_1280.jpg" height="149" width="320" /></a></div>
<br /><div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ryan is a 7-year-old piano student in one of my classes, an
adorable and exasperating little boy who is infinitely curious.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> He walks into the classroom and immediately starts firing off questions:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“What’s that sign?”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“When are we going to learn b minor?”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“What does that mean?”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“How do you write out this rhythm?”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“What does the middle pedal do?”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
And so on, endlessly. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s both endearing and exhausting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is also, you might guess, sharp as a tack,
eagerly retaining every piece of information I impart in class.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Not surprising, these two traits, curiosity and learning
ability, are known to go together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And a
<a href="http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2814%2900804-6" target="_blank">recent study published in the journal <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Neuron</i></a>
shows how they are connected on an anatomical level.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The researchers, led by Matthias Gruber from
the University of California at Davis, gave people a stack of questions and
asked them to rate how curious they were to know the answers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, they put each person in an fMRI scanner
to look at what parts of the brain were active while they were learning the
answers to the questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While in the
scanner, the subjects were shown one of the questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They then saw a picture of random person’s face, and then the answer to the question.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was repeated for the whole stack of
questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later, the researchers tested whether
the subjects had learned the answers to the questions, and found that, in each
case, when the subject was most curious about the answer, he or she was most
likely to remember it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The interesting part of this study comes next:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the researchers also tested to see which
faces the subjects remembered best. They found that subjects remembered faces
presented after a curiosity-provoking question, but that faces presented after
a low-curiosity question were not remembered well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, simply putting someone in a
state of high curiosity increased their ability to remember all information,
not just information the person was curious about.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The fMRI data in this study show that during states of high
curiosity, there is increased activity in the midbrain, and in the nucleus
accumbens, two areas of the brain known to be involved in motivation and
reward.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Intrinsic motivation, our desire
for knowledge, activates the same areas as external motivators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fMRI data also showed that the greatest
memory benefit from curiosity occurred when there was co-activation of the
midbrain motivation areas along with the hippocampus, a structure long known to
be important for learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
researchers speculate that activity in the motivation pathways of the brain
might drive increased activity in the hippocampus, and this co-activation is
the anatomical explanation for why curiosity aids learning.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As a teacher, I find this result both fascinating and
useful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The take-home for me is that I
can increase my students' ability to learn simply by calling on their
curiosity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of just telling them
information, I can ask them questions, get them wondering about the answers
first, to activate those intrinsic motivation pathways.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If they’re wondering what the answer is,
they’re more likely to remember it when I tell them, and they'll also remember other information I tell them at the same time.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As for Ryan, lately he’s dying to learn about 6/8 time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What is it?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>What does it mean?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I think I’ll
keep him in suspense a little longer (since it doesn’t come up in the
curriculum until after Christmas).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
this case, I don’t think curiosity will kill the cat; instead, it will prime
the hippocampus to help Ryan remember what I teach him.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Reference:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Gruber, M.J., Gelman, B.D., and Ranganath, C.
(2014). States of Curiosity Modulate Hippocampus-Dependent Learning via the
Dopaminergic Circuit. Neuron <i>84</i>, 486–496.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-12905140591559516442014-10-20T10:39:00.001-07:002014-10-20T10:40:00.425-07:00Watch Me!<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkAicmgVudjjj4M2kiyaw_m_8nWAr7ByrsN9a2ixTtImdApRUmSQrTf2tmBNT-GznZN5ST-9bUgeExayvA7y2hmQSU5aoQRVUhmGARET_4UZpCPhO1XzfeiJULXZ8cTccTCyDnEbj88LV6/s1600/DSCN3691+(Medium).JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkAicmgVudjjj4M2kiyaw_m_8nWAr7ByrsN9a2ixTtImdApRUmSQrTf2tmBNT-GznZN5ST-9bUgeExayvA7y2hmQSU5aoQRVUhmGARET_4UZpCPhO1XzfeiJULXZ8cTccTCyDnEbj88LV6/s1600/DSCN3691+(Medium).JPG" height="240" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">One of my grade 1 piano students is working
on the piece <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Snake</i> by Renee
Christopher and is having a hard time with the fingering, which is admittedly a
little tricky in places.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a recent
lesson, I watched her struggle, and tried to correct her with verbal
instructions:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Start on finger one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tuck now! No, onto D, that’s it, now move
finger 2 onto A…”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was not actually
very helpful for her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So I stopped her,
and instead said, “Watch me”, and played the passage for her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She tried again, and there was definite
improvement, but still mistakes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So I
played it for her again, and then she played it again, and we went back and
forth a few more times until she had the fingering down.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Learning by observation is actually fairly
common in musical training.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s less
common in other fields, such as sports or physical therapy, but studies have
shown that it is useful for all types of motor learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This struck me as kind of odd at first,
because I tend of think of motor learning as something that only comes through
practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How we can “practice” just by
watching someone else?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The answer has to
do with the way our brains are primed to imitate others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is a class of neurons known as “mirror
neurons” which are active both when we perform an action, and also
when we observe someone else performing that action.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, for those neurons, observing
a motor task is almost the same as actually performing the task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When we make those neurons fire, the connections
between the neurons get altered, enabling us to learn the movement just by
watching.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">And research studies have proven this.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many studies use simple movements, such as
moving your thumb quickly in a certain direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But even using this straightforward model,
observation helps.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/25/41/9339.abstract" target="_blank">a 2005 paper by Stefan <i>et al.</i></a> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">used</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">stimulation</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">of</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">the</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">primary</span>
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">motor</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">cortex</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">to</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">cause people to move their thumbs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Practicing thumb movements in a particular
direction led to an increase in the acceleration of the movement in that
direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> The researchers</span></span> <span lang="EN-US">showed that people who simply watched a video of someone moving
their thumb in </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">that</span> <span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">same</span> <span lang="EN-US">direction increased
their movement </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">acceleration</span>
<span lang="EN-US">almost as much as those who practiced the movement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In contrast, a group that watched a video of
someone moving their thumb in the opposite direction did not increase the
movement acceleration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study showed
that the motor cortex can be rewired just by watching movements, through the
activation of mirror neurons.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">How well can we learn movements just by
observation?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to learn a
movement, it’s pretty clear that just watching someone is not as effective as
physically practicing – otherwise every armchair sports fanatic would be an
expert athlete!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So how much does adding
observation to our practice session help?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>How should practicing and watching be combined? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222890009601357#.VEVGjcmK6F8" target="_blank">a study by Shea <i>et al.</i> (2000)</a>, participants
had to learn to keep a dot centred on a screen in a video-game type of
exercise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results showed that physical
practice was superior to observation, but that a combination of physical
practice and observation seemed to be even better.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691800000391" target="_blank">Another study from the lab of Paul Anderson</a> used the volleyball serve as a model and
compared observation before physical practice with observations interspersed
into the practice sessions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most
effective strategy was to have participants observe serves before practicing,
and then observe a few more during the early stages of practice.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">And who should we watch doing the movement
we want to learn?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An expert, who does
the movement perfectly? Or someone who is learning themselves, so we can learn
from their mistakes?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, the
best scenario is when we have the opportunity to see both.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When we watch an expert, we make a mental
model for how the movement is supposed to be performed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But when we watch someone learning the
movement, making mistakes and correcting them, we make a strategy for learning
the movement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both are useful.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">With this in mind, one approach for motor
skill learning is “dyad practice”, where people practice in groups of two,
taking turns practicing and observing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Dyad practice has several advantages:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>it minimizes fatigue, and maximizes time spent using equipment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This approach is used in sports training, and
in training surgeons and other professionals.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">As a result of reading all this research,
I’ve started demonstrating songs more to my students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I always have, of course – the students
should hear every new song before they head home to practice it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But I haven’t always had the students <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">watch</i> me perform the song.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Usually, I have them look at the music while
I’m demonstrating, so that they can make a connection with the music they see
on the page and how it is supposed to sound when they play it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But these days I to try to play it for them
twice – once while they watch the music, and once while they watch my
hands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Let’s get those mirror neurons
firing!</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">REFERENCES</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Rohbanfard, H., and Proteau, L. (2011).
Learning through observation: a combination of expert and novice models favors
learning. Exp Brain Res <i>215</i>, 183–197.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Shea, C.H., Wright, D.L., Wulf, G., and
Whitacre, C. (2000). Physical and observational practice afford unique learning
opportunities. J Mot Behav <i>32</i>, 27–36.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Stefan, K., Cohen, L.G., Duque, J.,
Mazzocchio, R., Celnik, P., Sawaki, L., Ungerleider, L., and Classen, J.
(2005). Formation of a motor memory by action observation. J. Neurosci. <i>25</i>,
9339–9346.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Weeks, D., and Anderson, L.P. (2000). The interaction of
observational learning with overt practice: effects on motor skill learning.
Acta Psychologica <i>104</i>, 259–271.</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-32570869133241287522014-05-08T08:13:00.000-07:002017-01-27T09:30:18.546-08:00Flashcards<br />
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</tbody></table>
<br />
Learning to read notes on the staff is hard work for many students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are so many lines and spaces, and
they’re so close together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And it would
be so much easier if the notes were in the same places in each clef.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But they’re not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Our system of music notation may not be the
easiest to learn, but it’s what we’re stuck with.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the springtime, I always do a big flashcard push with my
students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each child has flashcards that
they are supposed to review daily, testing themselves by trying to name the
note on the flashcard, and then checking the back of the card to see if they
are correct. In class each week, I challenge them with “60 Second Club”; simply,
each child has to see how many notes they can name in 60 seconds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have them keep track of their scores, and
encourage them to try to improve every week.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Almost always, they love this challenge and are proud to be able to tell me how many notes they can name.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Of course, just being able to name the notes is not all that
is required for good sight-reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But as a teacher, I know that this approach
is effective in helping people improve their note-naming.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My students are generally very quick at
naming notes, and I see a related improvement in their sight-reading abilities.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As a scientist, I wonder what the research is about
flashcards – why do they work and what is the best way to use them?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here’s what I found out.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Flashcards work because they are a method of testing
yourself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Just studying information,
reading it over, whether silently or out loud, <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/319/5865/966.abstract" target="_blank">does not promote learning as effectively as a test</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tests work well to promote
learning because you have to try to recall the information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Say you look at the
following note:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCg5dTdwCYwLtF5tgQgjx5HYmC1jzUNH0_b8EtbzNo0GyAZZWrw2dYDAF_r8ZfJqFQmOyqbSw4JCz1o64G9GLYCXkNI9a9AOD8ZdhuH5zeRywqb-V996y0JVfji1CLracxZfdf5fKIAuWX/s1600/middleC.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCg5dTdwCYwLtF5tgQgjx5HYmC1jzUNH0_b8EtbzNo0GyAZZWrw2dYDAF_r8ZfJqFQmOyqbSw4JCz1o64G9GLYCXkNI9a9AOD8ZdhuH5zeRywqb-V996y0JVfji1CLracxZfdf5fKIAuWX/s1600/middleC.jpg" height="151" width="200" /></a></span></div>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and name it correctly
as middle C. This reinforces the link between the place on the staff and
the name of the note.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But what if you
don’t know the name? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Does making an
error on a test promote learning of the correct answer?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xlm/35/4/989/" target="_blank">Studies show that it does.</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, making an error (like naming a note
incorrectly) primes the brain to learn better immediately afterwards, even if
the new information is completely unrelated to the error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Here’s another interesting finding about flashcards:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>you shouldn’t remove cards that you can
answer correctly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That doesn’t seem to
make sense – we naturally think that taking out the cards you know allows you
more study time on the cards you don’t know.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But research has shown that this is not the best way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09658210701763899?queryID=%24{resultBean.queryID}#.U2phQlea8sM" target="_blank">A study by Nate Kornell and Robert Bjork</a>
showed that dropping flashcards once the material on that card was deemed to be
learned led to worse performance on a test, whether the test happened right
after studying or a week later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The researchers concluded that there were two reasons that
dropping flashcards was ineffective.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
first is that the dropping of flashcards relies on students’ judgement of
whether an item is really well-learned, and requires a decision about how
well-learned something needs to be before it is dropped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Students don’t usually decide to overlearn
something even though there are proven benefits to overlearning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, people drop flashcards too
soon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Just because you can name a note
right now doesn’t mean that you’ll remember it tomorrow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you keep practicing naming it, that will help
you remember it better in the future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The second reason that keeping well-learned flashcards in the rotation
is best is that it helps to space out our learning. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is a whole field of research looking at
the Spacing Effect, but the main point is that <a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2011/11/spacing-effect.html" target="_blank">trying to learn something all in a big block doesn’t work as well as when we take little breaks</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the case of flashcards, the flashcards
that are already well-learned act as spacers between the flashcards that we
are still learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I will confess that I’ve often told my students to drop
flashcards once they were well-learned, especially once they get into ledger
line notes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Just do the hard ones, over
and over", I’d tell them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But no
more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Practice the whole stack, that’s
the new way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I expect they’ll learn
their notes even better.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>References</b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Karpicke, J.D., and Blunt, J.R. (2011). Retrieval
Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping.
Science <i>331</i>, 772–775.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Karpicke, J.D., and Roediger, H.L. (2008). The
Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning. Science <i>319</i>, 966–968.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Kornell,
N., and Bjork, R.A. (2008). Optimising self-regulated study: The benefits—and
costs—of dropping flashcards. Memory <i>16</i>, 125–136.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Kornell, N., Hays, M.J., and Bjork, R.A. (2009).
Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition <i>35</i>, 989–998.</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-52088535406170730522014-04-14T13:39:00.002-07:002014-04-14T13:40:03.506-07:00In support of school band<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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In my family, spring means that it's time to look ahead to the
following school year and try to figure out what activities to sign up
for.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Should we continue with
soccer?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Add a new sport?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Try a youth orchestra?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s always challenging to accommodate
everyone’s interests while managing to not overschedule ourselves AND to stay
within our budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We try to find
low-cost activities and ones that are in our neighbourhood or near the children’s
school.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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We’ve been increasingly grateful for the programs that are
offered as options at the school itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>My children have participated in cross-country running, track and field,
school choir, and drama.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And this past
year, Sophia, as a grade 5 student, was able to join the school band, playing
the oboe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s been great.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The school band is convenient – right at the
school where we’re going anyway; it’s with her friends, so they get the
pleasure of playing music together; and, to be perfectly honest,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the price is right.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>School band is free.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Well, free-ish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There’s a small fee, plus we have to rent the
oboe, and buy the books and reeds.) And band is going well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her music teacher seems to be doing a fine
job of herding all these 10-year-old kids, all with completely different music
backgrounds and playing all sorts of different instruments, into a semblance of
a musical ensemble.</div>
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<br /></div>
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So I was completely unimpressed to hear that the Vancouver
School Board is proposing to eliminate their elementary school band and strings
programs in an effort to save money.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Argh.</div>
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<br /></div>
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This is happening everywhere, I know.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Music programs are among the first to be cut
when there are budgetary concerns.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
decision-makers can very clearly see that reading and math are good for kids, but
many believe that the arts programs are “fluff”, dispensable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So I thought I’d spend a little time today
putting together a list of the strong scientific evidence for the positive
effects of musical training on cognition and well-being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ammunition, if you will, for fighting in
favour of music programs in the schools.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Before I get to that, I feel that should add a caveat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While I definitely believe that musical
training has cognitive benefits, that is not why I enrol my children in music
lessons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Music offers us an unparalleled
access to joy, a vehicle for self-expression, and, by playing in a group, an
opportunity to be part of something bigger than ourselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Musical training is a gift we give our children,
like learning to read, or learning to understand the world around us.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It should be part of the educational program,
so that no child is excluded from the multitude of benefits that learning to
make music offers.</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Benefits of Musical Training on Cognitive Function and Emotional Well-Being</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<b>Musical training enhances auditory processing, leading to better verbal skills and increased reading ability:</b></div>
<br />
<ul>
<li>Musical training enhances brainstem auditory responses to both speech and music. Musicians have better encoding of pitch information in speech, which is important for understanding what is being said, as well as the emotional content of speech. (Musacchia et al.,2007; Strait et al., 2009)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Musicians are better able to filter away background noise, and so can better encode and understand speech in the presence of background noise (Parbery-Clark et al., 2009)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Adults who had musical training as a child (but did not necessarily continue playing music as an adult) still have better brainstem responses to sound. This indicates that changes in the brain in response to early musical training are long-lasting.(Skoe and Kraus, 2012)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Musical training protects against the normal age-related decline in auditory processing. Older musicians show the same accurate processing of sounds as young people. This effect of musical training is not limited to professional or life-long-musicians. Even a few years of musical training during childhood had a protective effect on auditory processing in seniors, even 50 years later. (Parbery-Clark et al., 2012; White-Schwoch et al., 2013)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>University students with musical training before the age of 12 had better verbal memory than people with no musical training (Chan et al., 1998)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Children with at least 3 years of musical training performed better on vocabulary tests than children with no musical training.There was a positive correlation between duration of musical study and performance on test; in other words, the longer the child had studied music, the more likely she was to do well on the vocabulary test. (Forgeard et al., 2008)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>A six-month study on 8-year-olds found that children given music lessons improved their reading abilities more than children given painting lessons (Moreno et al., 2009).</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>In 4- and 5-year-old children, music skills were found to correlate with phonological awareness and reading development. “Music perception appears to tap auditory mechanisms related to reading”. (Anvari et al., 2002)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>In university students, the ability to recognize differences in pitch contour (shape of a melody) correlated with reading ability. “Acoustic perception constrains the development of phonological skill and literacy acquisition”. (Foxton et al., 2003)</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Improvements in verbal skills were seen in 4- to 6-year old children after only 20 days of musical training using a computer program. (Moreno et al., 2011)</li>
</ul>
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<b> </b></div>
<b><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musical training leads to increased spatial and mathematical abilities:</b></div>
</b><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Orchestra musicians perform better than non-musicians on a task of 3-D mental rotation. Imaging studies showed this mental task was accompanied by activation in Broca’s area in addition to the regular activation in visuospatial areas of the brain. (Sluming et al, 2007) </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Children given 6 months of piano training had improved spatial-temporal reasoning abilities and were faster at learning proportional math concepts taught in a video-game format. ( Graziano et al.,1999)</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Cheek and Smith (1999) report that grade 8 students who have had at least 2 years of private music training score better on the mathematics portion of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills than students with no private music training. In addition, they found that students whose lessons were on a keyboard instrument have better math skills than those whose music lessons were not keyboard related. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musicians doing mental math use different parts of the brain than non-musicians: there is more activation in the left fusiform gyrus (used for shape processing) and the left prefrontal cortex (which is the site for working memory). (Schmidthorst and Holland, 2004)</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></span></span></li>
</ul>
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<b>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musical training
leads to improvements in executive function:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>attention, discipline, and working memory:</b></div>
</b><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Children given twenty sessions of musical training over a month showed an improvement on an executive function task testing working memory and response inhibition. (Moreno et al., 2011)</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Young adults who were musical performers showed better performance than non-musicians on two tasks measuring executive function. (Bialystok and Depape, 2009)</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Professional musicians perform better than amateurs on the Stroop test, a measure of selective attention and cognitive flexibility. (Travis, 2011)</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musical training leads to improvements in working memory (Bergman Nutley et al., 2013)</span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musical training can be used to offset the decline in executive function that can occur with aging. Seniors given six months of piano lessons had significantly improved scores on executive function test of planning and working memory. (Bugos et al., 2007)</span></li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
<b>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musical training has
a small effect in increasing overall IQ:</b></div>
</b><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A year-long study in Toronto showed that children who were given musical training had a slightly greater increase in overall IQ compared children who were not given music lessons. (Schellenberg, 2004)</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">High school students studying music have better grades in virtually all subjects (Cabanac et al., 2013)</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></span></span></li>
</ul>
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<b>
</b><b>
</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<b>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Making music improves mood, decreases levels of stress hormones, and boosts
the immune system:</b></div>
</b><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Choir singers, after rehearsing, have increased levels of immune system markers, decreased levels of stress hormones, and better mood. (</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Beck et al., 2000; </span></span>Kreutz et al., 2004)</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Singers after a singing lesson report feeling more joyful, relaxed and energetic. (Grape et al., 2003)</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Drumming therapy decreases blood levels of stress indicators and increases immune system indicators (Bittmann et al., 2001)</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Musically-trained university students had lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol before a math exam compared to non-musician students, suggesting that musically-trained students more emotionally stable. (Laohawattanakun et al., 2011)</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></span></span><ul>
<li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Non-musicians showed improved mood (using a questionnaire) after singing in a group for 30 minutes(Unwin et al., 2002)</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></span></span></li>
</ul>
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<b>
</b><b>
</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="background: yellow; mso-highlight: yellow;"><br /></span></b></div>
<b>
</b><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Anvari, S.H., Trainor, L.J., Woodside, J., and
Levy, B.A. (2002). Relations among musical skills, phonological processing, and
early reading ability in preschool children. J Exp Child Psychol <i>83</i>,
111–130.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Beck, R.J., Cesario, T.C., Yousefi, A., and
Enamoto, H. (2000). Choral Singing, Performance Perception, and Immune System
Changes in Salivary Immunoglobulin A and Cortisol. Music Perception <i>18</i>,
87–106.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Bergman Nutley, S., Darki, F., and Klingberg, T.
(2014). Music practice is associated with development of working memory during
childhood and adolescence. Front Hum Neurosci <i>7</i>, 926.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Bialystok, E., and Depape, A.-M. (2009). Musical
expertise, bilingualism, and executive functioning. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept
Perform <i>35</i>, 565–574.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Bittman, B.B., Berk, L.S., Felten, D.L.,
Westengard, J., Simonton, O.C., Pappas, J., and Ninehouser, M. (2001).
Composite effects of group drumming music therapy on modulation of
neuroendocrine-immune parameters in normal subjects. Altern Ther Health Med <i>7</i>,
38–47.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Bugos, J.A., Perlstein, W.M., McCrae, C.S., Brophy,
T.S., and Bedenbaugh, P.H. (2007). Individualized Piano Instruction enhances
executive functioning and working memory in older adults. Aging & Mental
Health <i>11</i>, 464–471.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Cabanac, A., Perlovsky, L., Bonniot-Cabanac, M.-C.,
and Cabanac, M. (2013). Music and academic performance. Behavioural Brain
Research <i>256</i>, 257–260.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Chan, A.S., Ho, Y.C., and Cheung, M.C. (1998).
Music training improves verbal memory. Nature <i>396</i>, 128.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Cheek, J.M., and Smith, L.R. (1999). Music training
and mathematics achievement. Adolescence <i>34</i>, 759–761.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Forgeard, M., Winner, E., Norton, A., and Schlaug,
G. (2008). Practicing a musical instrument in childhood is associated with
enhanced verbal ability and nonverbal reasoning. PLoS ONE <i>3</i>, e3566.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Foxton, J.M., Talcott, J.B., Witton, C., Brace, H.,
McIntyre, F., and Griffiths, T.D. (2003). Reading skills are related to global,
but not local, acoustic pattern perception. Nat. Neurosci <i>6</i>, 343–344.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Grape, C., Sandgren, M., Hansson, L.-O., Ericson,
M., and Theorell, T. (2003). Does singing promote well-being?: An empirical
study of professional and amateur singers during a singing lesson. Integr
Physiol Behav Sci <i>38</i>, 65–74.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Graziano, A.B., Peterson, M., and Shaw, G.L.
(1999). Enhanced learning of proportional math through music training and
spatial-temporal training. Neurol. Res. <i>21</i>, 139–152.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Hyde, K.L., Lerch, J., Norton, A., Forgeard, M.,
Winner, E., Evans, A.C., and Schlaug, G. (2009). Musical training shapes
structural brain development. J. Neurosci <i>29</i>, 3019–3025.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Kreutz, G., Bongard, S., Rohrmann, S., Hodapp, V.,
and Grebe, D. (2004). Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory
immunoglobulin A, cortisol, and emotional state. J Behav Med <i>27</i>,
623–635.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Laohawattanakun, J., Chearskul, S., Dumrongphol,
H., Jutapakdeegul, N., Yensukjai, J., Khumphan, N., Niltiean, S., and
Thangnipon, W. (2011). Influence of music training on academic
examination-induced stress in Thai adolescents. Neurosci. Lett. <i>487</i>,
310–312.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Moreno, S., Marques, C., Santos, A., Santos, M.,
Castro, S.L., and Besson, M. (2009). Musical training influences linguistic
abilities in 8-year-old children: more evidence for brain plasticity. Cereb.
Cortex <i>19</i>, 712–723.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Schellenberg,
E.G., Cepeda, N.J., and Chau, T. (2011). Short-Term Music Training Enhances
Verbal Intelligence and Executive Function. Psychological Science <i>22</i>,
1425–1433.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Musacchia, G., Sams, M., Skoe, E., and Kraus, N.
(2007). Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing
of speech and music. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A <i>104</i>, 15894–15898.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
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(2009). Musical experience and neural efficiency: effects of training on
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<b>
</b> <br />
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-9354341226491386152014-04-04T10:58:00.001-07:002014-04-04T10:58:38.660-07:00Turn Off the Music?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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loud music?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Surely it’s distracting
you.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And studying English too!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The words of the music are interfering with
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The idea that the music is impeding her studying makes sense to most people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
music is yet another source of information entering the teenager’s brain, and
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who is
right? Does background music during studying help or hinder?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And does it matter whether the music is vocal
or instrumental?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These questions were
addressed in<a href="http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com/content/10/1/10" target="_blank"> a recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Zurich</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They studied almost 200
people who learned lists of words while listening to either vocal music,
instrumental music, or no music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
people were shown fifty words, one at a time, on a screen, and then had to write
down as many words as they remembered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This was repeated several times, using the same words each time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The people also were tested to see how many
words they could recall thirty minutes later and then again two weeks later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The researchers found that </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>listening to music didn’t seem to have any effect in the long-term
learning of the words.</span> They did find a
small detrimental effect of listening to vocal music during the first few
presentations of the words:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the vocal
music group recalled slightly fewer words on the first few trials.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This effect was not seen for recall at later times. After the initial learning, the words were equally well recalled regardless of whether the people had been listening to music or not.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Previous
studies looking at the effects of background music on learning have given mixed
results.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A number of studies, especially
those using classical music, have shown that people learn better if background
music is played, because it makes them more relaxed and focused.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other studies have found that background
music is distracting.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lutz </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Jäncke</span></span>,
the lead author of this current study, had previously found that when people
try to study while listening to music, their brains were more active,
presumably because they have to work harder to tune out the music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He suggests that the current results show
that people are able to effectively ignore the music, and that is why it has no
effect on their learning.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So should
you harass your teenager to turn down the music while they’re studying?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My vote is no.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Everyone has their own preferences about
listening to music while studying.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Personally, I do find vocal music to be distracting, and always put on
quiet classical music to study or write.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Okay, I’ll admit that my preferred background music is always Glenn Gould
playing Bach’s Goldberg Variations (the 1981 recording), on repeat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> I</span>t’s what works for me, my personal voodoo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So let your teenager decide for herself
if the music is distracting or not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Research says the music is probably not going to interfere with her
learning.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reference:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Jäncke, L., Brügger, E., Brummer, M., Scherrer, S.,
and Alahmadi, N. (2014). Verbal learning in the context of background music: no
influence of vocals and instrumentals on verbal learning. Behav Brain Funct <i>10</i>,
10.</span></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-73994435756408800482014-03-14T13:03:00.000-07:002014-03-14T13:04:30.204-07:00Caffeine and Memory<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I have a
great fondness for my morning cup of coffee.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I'm pretty happy about my second morning cup of coffee, too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although my children like to taunt me about
having an addiction, they also know better than to bother me before my first cup of joe
in the morning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And occasionally I
indulge in an afternoon pick-me-up, yet another steaming mug.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Coffee wakes me up, gets me going, makes me
alert and creative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once, in a foolish
fit of well-meaning, I gave up coffee for a year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was the most dull, flat, uninspired year
of my life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ll keep the coffee,
thanks.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And so it
always pleases me to read about positive effects of caffeine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The February 2014 issue of Nature
Neuroscience includes an article showing that caffeine increases memory
consolidation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Caffeine has been shown
in the past to increase alertness and attention, but a proven role in memory in
humans has been lacking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n2/abs/nn.3623.html" target="_blank">This recent study, authored by Borota et al. out of Johns Hopkins University</a>, had subjects study pictures of objects, asking
them to consider whether each one would be used indoors or outdoors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Afterwards, they were either given 200 mg of
caffeine, or a placebo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next day,
the people came back to the lab and were shown another series of pictures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some pictures were the same ones they had
seen the previous day, some were completely new, and some were “lure” pictures,
similar to those seen on the previous day, but not identical.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The subjects had to try to remember what they
had seen the previous day, and say whether each picture was new, old or
similar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The researchers found that
people were pretty good at distinguishing new from old pictures, but the tricky
part of the task was the lure pictures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>People who had taken the caffeine pills were better at recognizing these
pictures as similar but not the same as those they had previously seen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Memory
processes go through several stages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
first is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">encoding</i>, when we get new
information and store it in our brain, laying down a memory trace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next step is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">consolidation</i>, in which memories become resistant to interference
from competing memories, and become strengthened.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a research setting, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">this is usually seen </span>as
better performance on a memory task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Some consolidation of memories can occur while we’re awake, but there is
a large body of evidence showing that memory consolidation during sleep is
critical for strengthening memories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
last memory process used by the subjects in this research study is memory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">retrieval</i>, where memories are pulled out
for use in a memory task.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Because in
this study the caffeine was administered after the subjects had studied the
pictures for the first time, we cannot tell anything about the effect of
caffeine on memory encoding (although other studies have not shown any real
effect).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And saliva tests showed that
there was no residual caffeine in the subjects’ systems at the time of memory
testing, so this study doesn’t implicate caffeine in memory retrieval
either.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This study shows that caffeine
boosts memory consolidation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Excellent!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I think I’ll go and make myself another cup.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reference</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Borota, D., Murray, E., Keceli, G., Chang, A.,
Watabe, J.M., Ly, M., Toscano, J.P., and Yassa, M.A. (2014). Post-study
caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nature Neuroscience
17:201-203.</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-10315019774367137342013-11-26T13:04:00.000-08:002013-11-26T13:04:32.670-08:00Musical Training has Long-Lasting Effects<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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The other day, as I was dropping off my son at school, I was
approached by another mom, who asked for my business card and said she was thinking about putting her 6-year-old daughter in piano lessons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She told me that she’d been reading a lot in
the news about how studying music was good for brain development.</div>
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<br /></div>
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I’ve noticed this too:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>a flurry of news articles in the last few weeks extolling the benefits
of musical training for children’s brains.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Music training altering the brain isn’t really news, but here's what is: several recent research
studies show that a relatively short period of musical training early in life
can have long-lasting effects on the brain.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Nina Kraus’ lab at Northwestern University has published a stack of papers showing that musical training alters the way the brain
processes sound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the ways they
study auditory processing is by looking at the electrical responses of the
brainstem in response to sounds such as speech.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One particular type of sound in speech that can be difficult to process
is the transition between consonants and vowels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because this transition happens so quickly, it can be hard to tell apart the sound "da" from the sound "ba", for example. A fast brainstem response to consonant-vowel
transitions indicates that this type of auditory input is well-processed, and
this in turn leads to enhanced language abilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kraus’ lab has shown in the past that
musicians’ brains have faster responses to these types of transitions than the
brains of non-musicians.</div>
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A new study from Kraus’ lab, published this month in the
Journal of Neuroscience, compares brainstem responses to consonant-vowel
transitions in older adults who either had no musical training, a small amount
of musical training (1-3 years) as a child, or a moderate amount of musical training
(4-14 years) as a child.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Note that all
of the musical training had occurred while the subjects were children, and so it
had been roughly 50 years since these people had had music lessons.</div>
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Despite the fact that it had been so long since musical training ended,
there were noticeable differences in the responses to consonant-vowel
transitions in the brains of the three different groups.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fastest responses were from the people
with the most musical training, while the people with no musical training had
the slowest responses.</div>
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<br /></div>
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From White-Schwoch et al. (2013).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Group average brainstem responses to the
sound “da”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The blue lines (fastest response)
are the subjects with moderate musical training, orange is little musical
training, and grey lines are the responses from people with no musical
training.</div>
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This study shows that the effects of musical training can
persist long after the musical training has stopped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Why would this be?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We tend to think of our brain capabilities in
a “use it or lose it” fashion – for example, if you don’t play the piano for 50
years, you’re probably not going to be able to play it very well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But in this case, what the musical training
did was to alter the way the brain processes sound, and since processing sound
is something that we do in everyday life, the enhanced neural responses to
sound continued to be used after the end of musical training.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The authors of this study suggest that early
musical training primes the brain’s auditory system for further plasticity in
response to sound, setting the stage for future auditory effects on the brain.</div>
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Another study, presented at the recent annual meeting of the
Society for Neuroscience, showed that people who had musical training that started
before the age of seven had thicker gray matter in certain areas of the brain than
those who started musical training later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This research, authored by Yunxin Wang at Beijing Normal University,
indicates that <a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2013_02_01_archive.html" target="_blank">starting lessons before the age of seven is more likely to lead to long-lasting brain changes, something that has been suggested by previous research</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>What is slightly different about Wang’s study, though, is that the
subjects were not all currently musicians; some had had only a small amount of
musical training in childhood and not continued with lessons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, that early musical training
seems to have left an impression in their brains.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether the differences in brain anatomy lead
to any change in brain function is not yet known, but this type of result
certainly suggests that starting music lessons earlier is more likely to lead
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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References</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Wang, Y., Xei, L., Zhu, B., Liu, Q., and Dong, Q. (2013). It matters
when you start: The age of onset of music training predicts brain anatomy. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Program No. 765.07, Neuroscience 2013
Abstracts, San Diego, CA: Society for Neuroscience, Online.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">White-Schwoch, T., Carr, K.W., Anderson, S., Strait, D.L., and Kraus, N.
(2013). Older adults benefit from music training early in life: biological
evidence for long-term training-driven plasticity. J. Neurosci. <i>33</i>,
17667–17674.</span></div>
<br />
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-57749884890749314232013-11-05T11:19:00.000-08:002013-11-05T11:19:22.803-08:00Nature and Nurture<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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There are two excellent reviews out this week, both from
top-notch music-and-brain research labs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And both cover the same general topic:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>are musicians made or born?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One
paper (<a href="http://www.frontiersin.org/Auditory_Cognitive_Neuroscience/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00713/abstract" target="_blank">by Barrett <i>et al.</i>, out of Nina Kraus’ lab at Northwestern University) covers the research showing how musical training alters brain structure and function</a>, while in the other paper, <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6158/585.abstract" target="_blank">Robert Zatorre of McGill University also discusses the idea of predisposition to learning music</a>.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Scientific studies have shown that there are distinct
differences in the brains of musicians compared to non-musicians. For example, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>they have larger auditory cortices, larger
cerebellums, and greater connections between the two sides of the brain via the
corpus callosum.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Current research is
trying to figure out whether musician’s brains became that way because of all
the musical training, or whether those people became musicians because they
were genetically predisposed to having brains like that.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The evidence, thoroughly reviewed by Barrett
<i>et al.</i>, weighs heavily in support of the idea that musical training does alter
the brain.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But that doesn’t mean that there aren’t individual
differences in brains and their musical abilities, and specifically in their
ability to learn musical skills.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
topic is reviewed by Zatorre, pointing to studies on both speech and music in
which subjects can be classified into groups of slow learners or fast learners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He highlights in particular his own study of micro-interval
discrimination in which learning rate was related to the brain’s discriminatory
responses before training.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His results
indicate that certain pre-existing brain capabilities led to faster learning. It’s
not clear (nor does Zatorre make this case) that the differences in learning
were based on genetic predisposition rather than environmental factors, but
there are obviously individual differences between people, and we know that
genetic variability exists. We are all different, after all.</div>
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<br /></div>
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There’s an ongoing and never-ending debate about whether
success as a musician (or in any other art or skill) is due to innate aptitude
(what some people might call natural talent), or whether it is due to working
hard and having access to the right teachers and opportunities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s the old nature-vs-nurture question, and
while everyone agrees that both factors play a role, there is much to
learn about what role each factor plays.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It seems that for a long time people have leaned strongly towards
the idea that talent is inborn:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>either
you are a musical person or not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When I
was a teenager, people used to say to me, quite often, how lucky I was to be so musically talented.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I
remember thinking that these people were wrong:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I was just lucky that I enjoyed playing music so much that I was happy
to practice a lot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I fairly recently had
a woman ask me if I would listen to her child fool around on the piano, to see
if I thought the girl had enough talent that it was worthwhile pursuing music
lessons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My response was that of course
she should have piano lessons; her natural musical ability shouldn’t really
have any bearing on that decision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But many
people think musical talent is something you are born with.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There is certainly a grain of truth to this idea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every music teacher can see that some
students find music lessons much easier than others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These students tend to have certain characteristics
that help them:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a good sense of pitch,
good fine motor control, an ability to focus their attention, and a willingness
to self-correct.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every person is
different, so certainly some people begin music lessons with a head-start.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They may not have had any musical training,
but they have already some of the skills that are useful for studying
music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But does that mean they are
genetically more musically talented?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not
necessarily.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These things that they’re
good at (pitch, motor control) could be there because of other experiences they
have had in life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the other hand, I’d bet that every music teacher could
also tell you about students who seemed musical but didn’t get far with their
lessons because they didn’t practice regularly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And there are definitely students who start off with seemingly mediocre
abilities, but who work hard and learn to play well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> For the last few years</span> I've been teaching a young boy who has always
been an inconsistent practicer, just managing to keep up with his class. However,
this year he is on a kick of seeing how many days in a row he can
practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He’s up to almost 300 days of
practice, and the difference in his playing is remarkable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s an excellent example that, no matter what
your predisposition, if you put in the hours at your instrument, your playing will
improve. The experience of playing music changes your musical brain.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Every student is different, and comes to music lessons with
their own set of skills, their own capacity for learning, and their own personality.
Their brains are all different at the start of their musical training, and they
will each develop in different ways. At the same time, every student has the
capability to learn well with enough effort.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The job of the music teacher is to be aware of those individual
differences so that she can try to strengthen the students’ weak points, and
also find ways to motivate the students so that they are willing to put in the
daily practice required to improve. I find that the children who seem to have more
musical “ability” at the beginning of lessons tend to improve more quickly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s hard to know if this is because they
have a genetic advantage, or if they simply are more motivated to practice
because they find music easier to start with.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There’s such an interaction between predisposition and experience that
it is extremely difficult to untangle them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Aptitude and hard work are intrinsically linked by motivation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is part of what makes nature and nurture
inseparable in the debate about where talent comes from.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Barrett, K.C., Ashley, R., Strait, D.L., and Kraus, N. (2013). Art and
science: how musical training shapes the brain. Front Psychol <i>4</i>, 713.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Zatorre, R.J. (2013). Predispositions and plasticity in music and speech
learning: neural correlates and implications. Science <i>342</i>, 585–589.</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-16239578223703457032013-09-09T10:56:00.002-07:002013-09-09T10:57:20.382-07:00“This piano doesn’t know your piece yet”<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Last spring, some of my piano students participated in the
annual <a href="http://www.vancouvermusicfestivalworkshop.com/" target="_blank">Vancouver Music Festival Workshop</a>,
a non-competitive festival at which the students receive immediate oral
feedback from the adjudicators. My
students, in the youngest festival classes, had the privilege of working with
the lovely and encouraging Yvette Rowledge, an experienced adjudicator with a knack
for expressing comments in a way that young children can understand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The festival took place at a church, and the
students played on a beautiful grand piano.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Of course, every piano is a little bit different, and it takes a little
while to adjust to playing a different instrument, especially for these young
pianists. Yvette acknowledged this to
the students, often by using the phrase: “This piano doesn’t know your piece
yet”. This was a cute way of saying
that the students’ brains hadn’t adapted to playing on this different piano.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Changing our movements to adapt to different environmental
conditions is known as motor adaptation, an important category of motor
learning. Motor adaptation is believed
to work through feedback modification of existing motor programs. Think about it this way: when you go to play something on the piano,
you automatically move your fingers, hands, and arms a certain way, with a
certain amount of force, because you have learned that the keys give a
particular amount of resistance and are a certain distance apart, etc. You have learned that making these particular
movements on the piano will lead to certain sensory results: your fingers will feel the resistance of the
keys and your ears will hear the resulting pitches at a certain tempo and
volume level. This mapping of motor
commands to sensory consequences is called a forward model
– the brain takes the motor commands that have been generated, and predicts
forward what the sensory result will be.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFQtzHfQitdR5NUFOrgZA-4xv_cSEBZ7q11B_JtWZvD322ChS_v994C5u-v_0PEXpD5lQVbd7eWUDigKvTF74kU_bsShlufD9Vzp37yBz4N3fbzXndsrV5AGv1iQgA_vQO2tnL_dY8DOhy/s1600/Cerebellum_NIH.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFQtzHfQitdR5NUFOrgZA-4xv_cSEBZ7q11B_JtWZvD322ChS_v994C5u-v_0PEXpD5lQVbd7eWUDigKvTF74kU_bsShlufD9Vzp37yBz4N3fbzXndsrV5AGv1iQgA_vQO2tnL_dY8DOhy/s320/Cerebellum_NIH.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The human brain, with the cerebellum coloured in pink.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br /></div>
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The part of the brain that has been shown to do this prediction is the cerebellum,
a structure the size of a slightly flattened baseball, at the lower back of the
brain, just above where the back of your head attaches to your neck. The cerebellum not only predicts what the
sensory result of actions should be, it also compares the real sensory result
with the predicted one. So if you’re
playing a different piano and it has a stiffer action than you’re used to, the
sensory result will be different than you expect: your fingers will feel more resistance, the
keys will move more slowly, and the sounds you produce will be quieter and
perhaps uneven. In other words, what you
feel and hear will be different from what you expected. The cerebellum will register that there is
some kind of error, some difference between the predicted result and the actual
result. The cerebellum will then alter
the forward model to try to reduce that error. In this example, it will change the model to take into account that more
velocity is required to move the piano keys.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is what motor adaptation is: the updating of a forward model, so that the
prediction about sensory results better matches the actual sensory results of
the movement. Sensory feedback allows
our brain to learn the precise forces, directions, and velocities of movement
required in a particular situation. This
updating of the model is an ongoing activity, happening while we perform a
movement. It’s not like you play
something on the piano and then, after you finish, your brain figures out what
went wrong. Motor adaptation is
happening while you’re playing: as you
press down the key, you immediately feel and hear a difference in how the piano
responds, and you adapt our movements continually. Of course, getting the adaptation exactly
right takes a bit of time, so that your playing improves throughout the whole
piece.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Motor adaptation learning occurs all the time, in all sorts
of situations, whenever you learn to change the force and/or direction of your
movements in response to changes in the environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, every time you drive an
unfamiliar car, you have to adapt to how it handles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To turn a corner, you may need to exert more
or less force on the steering wheel than in the car you are used to
driving.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, if the brakes in the
unfamiliar car are more sensitive than the brakes in your own car, your stops
may be jerky at first.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But you quickly
learn, without thinking too much about it, what forces are required for
steering and braking in this car, and adapt your movements so that you turn and
brake smoothly and automatically.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Motor adaptation certainly plays an important role in
performing music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As we've seen, every
time a musician plays on a different instrument, she must adapt to the
different forces needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When we play in
a different hall with different acoustics, we adapt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When we need to play more quietly because
someone is sleeping or watching TV in another room, we adapt our movements. If the bench is too close to the piano or an orchestral player is crammed into a tiny orchestra pit, we need to adapt our movements.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the practical side, studies have shown that it’s possible
to improve at adaptation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If we practice
playing on lots of different pianos, we are better equipped to make the
necessary changes for each individual one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This occurs because our cerebellum will get an idea of what types of
possible errors are out there and how to correct for different errors. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The ability to adapt to different pianos is especially
important for my beginner students, some of whom practice at home on cheap
digital keyboards with unweighted keys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(I don’t recommend it, of course, but I understand parents’ desires to
keep costs down while they’re uncertain about whether their children will
continue with piano).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When these
children are playing on an acoustic piano, and actually have to press the keys
down hard enough to make the hammers hit the strings, the forces required are
quite different, and I hear the familiar refrain of “It was better at home”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They need to learn to adapt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I think the more different pianos they
play on, the better for motor adaptation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That way, every piano they play will “know their piece”.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Krakauer, J.W., and Mazzoni, P. (2011). Human sensorimotor learning:
adaptation, skill, and beyond. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. <i>21</i>, 636–644.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-CA;">Shadmehr, R., Smith, M.A., and Krakauer, J.W. (2010). Error correction,
sensory prediction, and adaptation in motor control. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. <i>33</i>,
89–108.</span></div>
Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-27873275586579838252013-02-18T11:14:00.001-08:002013-02-18T11:15:13.337-08:00Sensitive periods in music learning<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIKxWuYKlCSOoGoTNk1jkkBa66odCTI05ktNtrQgvgDRDEJ01hsx-0H-5YULcbgYWLJdauQX15sxs2k5iqe4t1KYG4A-sVUJ1P8x-RYEIlWfKbqz5EbkRlLrm4FXPmbv_UD7YV4n0GgXOU/s1600/DSC00682-002.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIKxWuYKlCSOoGoTNk1jkkBa66odCTI05ktNtrQgvgDRDEJ01hsx-0H-5YULcbgYWLJdauQX15sxs2k5iqe4t1KYG4A-sVUJ1P8x-RYEIlWfKbqz5EbkRlLrm4FXPmbv_UD7YV4n0GgXOU/s320/DSC00682-002.JPG" width="289" /></a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Perhaps a little too</span> young?</span></div>
<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When people call to enquire about piano lessons, they often
ask me what age is ideal for starting piano.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And my first answer is invariably:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>it
depends on the child.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are a lot of
factors that go into determining whether the time is right for beginning music
lessons<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But in general, I can say that
earlier is better (up to a limit – three and a half is usually my cut-off on the
early end).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Older children can learn
faster than younger children, and so will “catch up” quickly, but there is general
agreement among musicians and scientists that something is lost by waiting to
begin music lessons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As for learning
languages, there seems to be a window in brain development during which we are
more able to take in musical learning.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Windows in
development:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sensitive and critical
periods</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A window in development like this is known to scientists as
a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sensitive period</i> or a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">critical period</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A critical period is a time window during
which, if the appropriate stimuli are not received, the brain does not develop
properly, and will never be able to correctly process that type of
stimuli.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The classic example was provided
by the pioneering studies of Hubel and Wiesel in the 1960’s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They showed that if kittens were prevented
from seeing during a particular time window in development, the visual cortex
did not develop properly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Allowing the
kittens to see later did not reverse this effect: once the window was closed,
the visual cortex would never develop properly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That time window is a critical period.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A sensitive period is a little more forgiving than a
critical period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the appropriate
input to the brain is not received during a sensitive period, input at a later
date can have an effect, but to a lesser degree.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Studying language is like this.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is a sensitive period that closes
around the age of six, but you can still learn French as an adult; it’s just
going to be a little harder and you might never be as fluent.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A window for musical
brain development?</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The question with respect to musical training is:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Is there really a sensitive period for musical
brain development?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scientific studies
seem to support the idea that starting music lessons earlier is better, but
it’s hard to separate out the effects of starting music lessons early from the
effects of studying for longer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After
all, if you start music at four, then by the time you’re twenty, you’ve been playing
for sixteen years, but if you start at twelve, you’ve only been playing eight years
by the time you’re twenty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So if
scientists compare twenty-year-old musicians, are they analyzing the effects of
starting early, or the effects of studying longer?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Researchers from Concordia University have tried to level the
playing field (so to speak) in <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/3/1282.long" target="_blank">a new study that compares two groups of musicians</a> who have been playing on average the same length of time:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>one group that began lessons before the age
of seven, and one group who began when they were older than seven.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their results strongly support the idea that
there is a sensitive period in the development of the brain that responds to
musical training.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>People who had begun
musical training early in life had a greater connection between the two sides
of the brain, particularly the connection between regions of the brain
responsible for motor control and sensory input of the hands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The early-musical-training group had more
white matter in their corpus callosum, and (presumably because of this extra
white matter) was better able to synchronize their hands, as shown in a
behavioural tapping test.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was also
altered connectivity in the left temporal lobe, probably due to stronger ties
between the auditory cortex and motor cortex.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These connections are key for <a href="http://trainingthemusicalbrain.blogspot.ca/2012_04_01_archive.html" target="_blank">sensorimotor integration</a>, which is
the way the brain forms links between the movements we make and the sensations
that the movements produce.</div>
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<![endif]-->From a neurological standpoint, beginning lessons before
the age of seven is advantageous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Does
that mean that older children don’t really benefit from music lessons?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That idea is clearly ridiculous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many musicians (myself included) begin their
training after the age of seven.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
fact, it’s possible that people who begin lessons later are more likely to
truly enjoy playing music (and therefore are more motivated to practice): they
are learning music because they want to, not because their parents have decided
they should.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In any case, musical training at all
ages has a multitude of benefits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But,
all other things being equal, why not start music lessons before the age of
seven to take advantage of that sensitive period?</div>
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<b>Reference:</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Steele, C.J., Bailey, J.A., Zatorre, R.J., and Penhune, V.B.
(2013). Early musical training and white-matter plasticity in the corpus
callosum: evidence for a sensitive period. J. Neurosci. <i>33</i>, 1282–1290.</div>
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6229104466776159811.post-56526534219371639292012-11-29T13:45:00.000-08:002012-11-29T13:46:01.701-08:00Feeling the Beat<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBAHK3-BBqaD1s7Js9Z2FryYAoaOGQjuaQHi0IQrGLmh8yt1i7C-DcM6VMzb-sd2PWiBwuI7UChz_JXj-0ucotxKKD8_P0_1_gn_lE9fZRkRNh85aZpKweTBJqlI_8hq2tF_T-tcYesnA_/s1600/IMG_9081.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBAHK3-BBqaD1s7Js9Z2FryYAoaOGQjuaQHi0IQrGLmh8yt1i7C-DcM6VMzb-sd2PWiBwuI7UChz_JXj-0ucotxKKD8_P0_1_gn_lE9fZRkRNh85aZpKweTBJqlI_8hq2tF_T-tcYesnA_/s320/IMG_9081.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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It’s a Thursday morning, and I’m leading a Music Circle Time
at the local drop-in playcentre.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
kids are enthusiastic and adorable: mostly one- and two-year-olds, some
infants, and a handful of older preschoolers, all eager to sing, dance, jump,
twirl, tap and shake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I run through a
repertoire of fun songs that all involve some kind of movement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even for sit-down songs with no obvious
actions (like “Old MacDonald had a Farm”, for example), we clap or tap to the
beat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This keeps the kids engaged, but
more importantly, it activates their sense of rhythm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Literally, they “feel” the beat of the music.</div>
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<br /></div>
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If you stop to think about this phrase, “feeling the beat”, you might find it a bit odd.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Listening to music
is something we do with our hearing, not our sense of touch, right?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Surely we don’t actually <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">feel</i> the beat any more than we can smell the colour in a painting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, that’s not entirely
true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048496" target="_blank">A recent study (Huang et al., 2012)</a> published in PLoS ONE
looked at how we use different senses to “feel” the beat in music, and found
that we can perceive musical beat and meter with both hearing and touch, and
not only that, but the two types of sensory information are integrated together
in the brain. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Before we get into this, let me explain what I mean by
meter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Music almost always has a regular
beat to it, and when we listen to these beats, we hear them grouped into
patterns of strong beats and weak beats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>A slow waltz, for example, will have a pattern of strong - weak - weak,
strong - weak - weak, etc.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is known as
triple meter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A march would have a
pattern of strong - weak - strong - weak; this is duple meter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Studies have shown that even if the music is
generated such that it doesn’t actually contain strong and weak beats, people
will impose a meter upon the music and think of it as either duple or triple
meter.</div>
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In the Huang study, the subjects had to identify whether
they thought the meter of a rhythm was duple or triple. This identification
was based either on the pattern of accents put into the rhythm (i.e. some beats
were made to be louder and sound or feel like strong beats), or based simply on
whether there was generally a note or a rest where we would expect the strong beat to
be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The subjects were able to tell
easily whether the rhythm was duple or triple when the rhythm was presented as an
audible series of notes (i.e. using hearing) or when the rhythm was presented
as a series of taps on the subject’s hand (i.e. using touch).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not a new result – previous studies
have shown that we are quite good a recognizing rhythm using touch (although,
interestingly, not with vision).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </div>
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Where this new study showed something really interesting was
when the subjects had to recognize the meter using both hearing and touch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this part of the experiment, some of the
beats were presented as audible notes, and some of the beats were presented as
taps on the hand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The subjects had to
integrate both modalities in order to identify whether the meter was triple or
duple.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And the study showed that they
could, although it was easiest to identify the meter if all the strong beats
were presented in a single modality, e.g. all the strong beats were taps on the
hand and the weak beats were audible notes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If the two different modalities of sensing rhythm were given information
that interfered with each other (i.e. the notes going to touch felt like duple
meter, and the notes going to hearing sounded like triple meter), the subjects
had a much harder time figuring out what meter the combined rhythm was in,
showing that the two types of inputs interact to a great extent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The auditory information tends to be
dominant, having a greater influence on meter perception than touch.</div>
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This study reminds me of <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/308/5727/1430" target="_blank">a classic paper published in the journal Science in 2005</a>, from Laurel Trainor’s lab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This classic study used metrically ambiguous
music (i.e. could be interpreted as duple or triple), and had infants bounced
to the beat in either two or three.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then
the music was played back to the infants with accents added so that it was clearly either in duple or triple meter, and the infants preferred the meter in which they had been
bounced.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The researchers concluded that
this effect was probably due to vestibular (balance) input interacting with
auditory input.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The main point was that
body movement plays an important role in rhythm perception.</div>
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All of this suggests that in order to help students with
their rhythm and meter, we should take advantage of the integration of auditory
musical information with movement and touch sensation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This works just as well with older students
as it does with my little ones at the playcentre.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The more senses we can enlist to help
students feel the beat, the better.</div>
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For instance, the teacher could play the piece while the
student marches, bounces, dances or moves in some way to the beat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With younger children, the parents can bounce
them on the strong beats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This leaves
the movement to someone who presumably can feel the meter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having the children move on their own may be
useful but if they are not feeling the beat already, asking them to move may
not improve it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are other options,
rather than having the students get up and move:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the student could sway to the beat while
playing, or nod their head.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Movement of
the head strongly activates the vestibular system, so this is probably a better
reinforcer of meter than having the student just tap their foot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That being said, clapping and tapping are
also useful, although having the student move their whole leg (“walking” their
feet while sitting down) is more effective than just tapping, since the bigger
the movement, the better.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The teacher or
parent could also tap the beat on the student’s shoulder while they are
playing, remembering to accent the strong beats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In this way, they are receiving both touch and auditory information
about the meter.</div>
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<br /></div>
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I’m sure there are many other ways to incorporate touch and
balance into our daily interactions with music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I’d be interested in other ideas – please share what works for you!</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References:</b></div>
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Huang, J., Gamble, D., Sarnlertsophon, K., Wang, X., and
Hsiao, S. (2012). Feeling Music: Integration of Auditory and Tactile Inputs in
Musical Meter Perception. PLoS ONE <i>7</i>,
e48496.</div>
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Phillips-Silver, J., and Trainor, L.J. (2005). Feeling the
Beat: Movement Influences Infant Rhythm Perception. Science <i>308</i>,
1430–1430.</div>
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Tarahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15971056077753567256noreply@blogger.com1